Then, two PCR products were connected by overlapping PCR with primers XbaBTU15FW and BTU13RVXho. The overlapping PCR produced SalI, SmaI and SpeI sites between BTU1_5′ and BTU1_3′. The PCR product was cloned into the XbaI and XhoI sites of pBlueScript SK(+) vector (Stratagene)

to produce pBB. The neo5-MTT1-5′-2 segment was amplified from pMNMM3 by the PrimeStar HS DNA GF120918 ic50 Polymerase with primers neo5_FW_Sal and MTT1_MCS_RV p38 inhibitors clinical trials and cloned into the SalI and SpeI site of pBB. Then, an XhoI site was introduced between XbaI and NotI sites by site-directed mutagenesis with primers pBNMB_addXhoS and pBNMB_addXhoAS to produce pBNMB. neo5-MTT1-5′-2-HA-cre segment of pMNMM3-HA-cre1 was excised out by SalI and MluI and cloned selleck screening library into the SalI and MluI site of pBNMB to produce pBNMB-HA-cre1. The plasmid map and the DNA sequence of pBNMB-HA-cre1 can be found in the Additional file 1. The CU427 wild-type strain was transformed with the BTU1-5′-neo5-MTT1-5′-2-HA-cre1-BTU1-3′ construct which was digested out from pBNMB-HA-cre1 and the transformants were selected using 100 μg/mL paromomycin. The endogenous BTU1 loci were replaced with the construct by phenotypic assortment and selection using increasing concentrations of paromomycin. Six strains were selected for further studies. Induction of Cre-mediated loxP recombination For the experiment shown in Fig. 2A, exponentially growing B2086 or CRE556 cells were cultured

in 1× SPP medium with or without 1 μg/mL CdCl2 for 1.5 hr, or starved B2086 or CRE556 cells were cultured in 10 mM Tris (pH 7.5) with or without 50 ng/mL CdCl2 for 1.5 hr.

For the experiment shown in Fig. 2B, CRE556 and loxP-neo4-loxP-EGFP-TWI1 strains, both pre-starved over night in 10 mM Tris (pH 7.5) were mated and 50 ng/mL CdCl2 was added to the culture at 3.5 hr post-mixing (hpm). At the times indicated, cells were collected for immunofluorescence staining. For the experiment shown in Fig. 3B, starved CRE556 cells were pre-treated with 50 ng/mL CdCl2 for 1.5 hours and then mated with starved these loxP-neo4-loxP-EGFP-TWI1 cells in 10 mM Tris (pH 7.5) in the presence of 25 ng/mL CdCl2. At 2, 4, 6 and 8 hpm, genomic DNA was extracted for loxP excision analysis. For the experiment shown in Fig. 4B, starved CRE556 cells were pre-treated with 50 ng/mL CdCl2 in 10 mM Tris (pH 7.5) for 1.5 hr and then mated with pre-starved loxP-neo4-loxP-EGFP-TWI1 strains in the presence of 25 ng/mL CdCl2. At 2 hpm, single mating pairs were isolated into drops of 1× SPP medium. Cells were observed about every 2 hr until 6 hpm; then, cells were cloned into fresh drops of 1× SPP medium, in cases where pairs had separated. Cells were cultured for 2 days at 30°C and established clones were cultured in 1 mL 1× SPP medium for ~24 hr. The cells were then inoculated into 1× SPP medium containing 1 μg/mL CdCl2. Clones growing at normal speed in this medium were chosen as candidates for loxP-neo4-loxP-EGFP-TWI1 strain derived cells.

The boxes represent the inter quartile range of the data points, the bar indicates the median. The whiskers cover the data points within the 1.5x inter quartile range. Dots are outliers within 1.5 and 3 box lengths outside the interquartile range. ** indicates the significantly higher thickness (p≤0.001) of iHS biofilms compared to biofilms of both SAL and mFUM4. In mFUM4, biofilms showed a rapid increase in biofilm thickness and total Sapanisertib cost counts right after inoculation

and reached their highest cell numbers after 20 h. While stable until then, they tended to partially detach from the discs during the dip-washes at later time points. In contrast, major parts of biofilms grown in iHS detached during the dip-washes in the first 20 h of incubation. This observation is in accordance with the strong decrease in total counts along with a high variability between different experiments and replicates. find more During further incubation, however, the remaining parts had stabilized and the biofilms showed a rapid increase in thickness and total counts. Biofilms cultivated in SAL medium showed a constant increase of total counts and thickness and were not prone to detachment during the incubation time (Figure 1). Quantitative representation of species in

biofilms We determined the cell numbers of all organisms in biofilms grown either in SAL, mFUM4, and iHS medium. Enumeration of cells was performed by microscopical counting following staining the bacteria by fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) or immunofluorescence (IF). The data are summarized see more in Figure 4. Treponema denticola showed significantly higher cell numbers in iHS compared to SAL and mFUM4 and was among the most abundant

organisms in the biofilm. In mFUM4, Treponema denticola hardly proliferated and only appeared in abundances close to the detection limit. Streptococcus anginosus and Veillonella dispar showed significantly reduced growth in SAL medium compared to the other two media, while Actinomyces oris showed significantly reduced growth in iHS compared to mFUM4. Figure 4 Quantification of bacteria in biofilms grown for 64.5 h in SAL, mFUM4, and iHS growth medium. Bacteria were quantified by visual microscopic counting. Each box represents N=9 independent biofilms from three independent experiments. The boxes buy Alectinib represent the inter quartile range of the data points, the bar indicates the median. The whiskers cover the data points within the 1.5x inter quartile range. Dots are outliers within 1.5 and 3 box lengths outside the interquartile range, and colored stars are extremes that are more than 3 boxlengths outside the interquartile range. * indicate significant differences with p≤0.05 between a pair of boxes, as indicated by the brackets. The abundances of Streptococcus oralis, F. nucleatum, Campylobacter rectus, P. intermedia, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and T.

The mixture was heated to 100°C for

5 min to denature the proteins. The protein from each sample was subjected to electrophoresis on 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel. Then protein was transferred to nitrocellulose membrane, which were blocked with PBS containing 5% non-fat milk for 2 h and then incubated with anti-LRIG1 (1:5,000), anti-EGFR(1:2,000), anti-p-EGFR(1:2,000), anti-MAPK(1:2,000), anti-p-MAPK(1:2,000), anti-AKT(1:2,000), anti-p-AKT(1:2,000), anti-caspase-8(1:1,000), anti-MMP-2(1:2,000), anti-MMP-9(1:2,000) and β-actin(1:2,000) at 4°C overnight. Then secondary antibody labeled with alkaline selleck compound phosphatase were added at room temperature. One hour later, the samples were washed for three times with TBST, and then visualized using DAB Milciclib nmr detection system. Immunoprecipitation The total protein was prepared using M-PERTM mammalian protein extraction reagent (PI3K inhibitors ic50 Pierce). For each sample, 10 μL of anti-LRIG1 antibody or control

IgG was added to 1 mg of protein in 200 μL of lysis buffer and placed on a rocker overnight at 4°C. Twelve microliters of protein G beads was added to each sample, which was placed on a rocker at 4°C for 1 h. The beads were washed three times with 1 ml of lysis buffer and then boiled in 50 μL of SDS sample buffer; 20 μL was then loaded per lane and subjected to Western blotting. Apoptosis analysis Annexin V-PE/7-aad double staining assay was used to detect cell apoptosis. After transfected and incubated for 3 days, cells were collected, centrifuged and washed with phosphate—buffered saline(PBS) for two times. Binding

buffer was then added to each tube and cells were re-suspended. The cells were incubated with 5 μL of annexin V-PE and 5 μL of 7-aad for 15 min at room temperature in the dark. Then, the apoptotic analyses were done by flow cytometry within one hour. Survival assay by CCK-8 The growth of T24 and 5637 cells after LRIG1 gene MG-132 solubility dmso transfection were evaluated by Cell Counting Kit-8 assays. Untreated cells, cells treated with liposome alone and cells treated with the vector control were used for comparison. Cell suspensions (at 1 × 103/mL) were transferred to 96-well plates in triplicate and incubate for 24, 48 and 72 hours. Subsequently, CCK-8(10 μL) was added to each well, cells were incubated for an additional 4 h. Then, The values of each well was measured by microplate reader at 450 nm. Clonal forming assay T24 and 5637 cells were infected with LRIG1 cDNA and cultured for 24 h, then plated in 6-well plates at 200 cells/well. Plates were subsequently incubated for 14 days in a humidified incubator at 37°C, and the colonies were stained with 0.5 ml of 0.0005% crystal violet solution for 1 h and counted by using a microscope. Five random fields were counted from each sample and average values presented ± the SD. Matrigel invasion assays The in vitro invasive ability of bladder cancer cells was measured in transwells chambers assay.

5% to 14.47% [16]. The results for R. sphaeroides HGT fell within these ranges but the BIX 1294 order amount of HGT in CII was significantly higher proportionally (11.66%) compared to that in CI (2.04%). Such

distinct levels of HGT for CI and CII may suggest that both chromosomes play different roles in R. sphaeroides. This observation further confirms that CII has been more flexible in acquiring genes from other see more species [51]. However, it must be noted that this method of analyzing HGT may not pick up genes that are horizontally transferred between species of similar composition. In addition, although the role of duplicated genes in the majority of bacterial species still remains unclear, the role of gene duplication in the resident genome cannot be underestimated, especially since the majority of these gene duplications are not located within putative HGT regions as seen in R. sphaeroides. Protein divergence and the evolution CX-5461 ic50 of different COG functions in R. sphaeroides Gene duplications in R. sphaeroides involved in a wide variety of metabolic functions, and these duplications revealed a considerable variation in amino acid divergence within each metabolic function category. For example, protein pairs involved in flagellar assembly

and energy production diverged 60-70%, while protein-pairs involved in photosynthesis and carbon metabolism diverged only 10-30%. These conserved gene homologs may either protect against deleterious changes in either Protein kinase N1 copy and consequently result in functional redundancy or may not have been cleared out simply because they are not harmful to the organism. Two sets of flagellar operons and neu operons were located on CI, and most homologous protein pairs had diverged approximately 60-70% of their amino acid sequences. One complete set of flagellar genes (RSP0032-RSP0084) is functional as these genes were expressed in all growth conditions, while the microarray expression of the incomplete flagellar operon (RSP1302-RSP1330) was not detected [52], and therefore the second set of flagellar genes could be required for surface translocation during biofilm production or in an alternative lifestyle that has

not been identified yet as seen in other organisms [53, 54]. Besides the genes for known functions, the genome of R. sphaeroides contains about 40 duplicate genes encoding hypothetical proteins. About one-half of the total hypothetical protein-pairs diverged ~10-20%, and the other half of the hypothetical protein-pairs diverged ~50-70%. The analyses further revealed that genes involved in groups L (DNA synthesis), N (Cell motility and secretion), U (Intracellular transport), C (Energy production), G (Carbohydrate metabolism), and H (Coenzyme metabolism) were overrepresented among genes evolved by gene duplication, while the number of genes representing other COGs remained low or fairly equal percentage-wise to the number of genes representing those COGs in the overall genome of R. sphaeroides.

PAR was provided by SB202190 cost two symmetrical banks of 8 dimmable, U-shaped Philips PL-L 90 daylight fluorescence tubes (Philips Lightning, Eindhoven, NL) located on each side of the 50 L glass tank containing the culture flasks, whereas UV radiation was supplied by five pairs of UVA-340 fluorescent tubes (Q-Panel

Lab products, Westlake, OH, USA) located above the cultures. PAR level was adjusted to reach a midday maximum of 100 μmol photons m-2 s-1 for LL conditions and 900 μmol photons m-2 s-1 for HL conditions. For long or short term UV experiments, HL conditions were supplemented by a 12 h/12 h L/D cycle of UV radiation reaching 7.59 W m-2 UVA (320-400 nm) and 0.57 W m-2 UVB (280-320 nm) at virtual noon (see additional file 1: Fig. S1). For preliminary growth experiments, replicate 600 mL batch cultures were maintained in 1L Erlenmeyer glass flasks (Schott Duran, Mainz, Germany) for HL only experiments or 1 L Erlenmeyer quartz flasks (Atelier Jean Premont, Bordeaux, France) for HL+UV experiments. For transcriptomic analyses, two

7 L replicate cultures were kept in exponential growth phase at cell densities of around 108 cells mL-1 by continuous dilution with fresh medium, at a rate adjusted to population growth (e.g., 4.83 L must be added per day to a 7 L culture growing at one division per day). For these large-scale experiments, we MEK inhibitor side effects used custom-made, cylindrical 8 L quartz flasks (Selleck ICG-001 Ellipse, La Chapelle-la-Reine, France). All cultures were acclimated to experimental light conditions at least

two weeks before the start of sampling. For long-term HL+UV conditions, cultures were slowly acclimated by incrementally increasing the UV dose by ca. 2 W m-2 steps with at least 2-3 days of acclimation at each step. To further reduce UV stress, the pre-cultures were diluted daily at dawn and maintained at a cell density higher than 5×105 cells ml-1. To check for the eventual occurrence of self shading, we analyzed the timing of the S phase Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase peak and the percentage of cells in S in the peak in samples collected at different depths of the quarz flask (i.e. different distances from UV lamps) and observed that there were no significant differences (data not shown). Growth and cell cycle analyses by flow cytometry Culture samples for cell density measurements and cell cycle analyses were taken automatically at 1 h intervals using an electronic peristaltic pump (Masterflex Cartridge Pump 8; Fisher Bioblock Scientific, Illkirch, France) fitted to a custom-designed fraction collector. Aliquots were kept at 4°C in the dark and fixation of cells was done within a maximum timeframe of 9 h after sampling, a delay shown to cause only negligible changes on the DNA content in Prochlorococcus cells [92]. 400 microliter aliquots were fixed in glutaraldehyde (0.

In comparison with C, doping of fluorine (F) may be a new pathway

to regulate the electrical properties of h-BN. Since F is a highly electronegative element and has excessive valence electrons compared to B and N, doping F into some nanomaterials www.selleckchem.com/ferroptosis.html should reliably yield a p-type semiconductor at low coverages and even a conductor at high coverages [23, 24]. Some theoretical calculations have predicted the possible functions of doping F into h-BNNTs and h-BNNSs [24–26]. Only Tang et al. [23] reported the electrical conductivity of h-BNNTs which were fluorine-functionalized during the nanotubes’ growth. Doping F into h-BNNSs and examining their corresponding electrical properties have not been realized experimentally. Therefore, it is of crucial

importance to develop a facile method for doping F into h-BNNSs and explore its electrical properties. Herein, we doped F into few- and mono-layered h-BNNSs and first pursued their electrical properties with the scanning tunneling microscope-transmission electron microscope (STM-TEM) holder. The few-layered h-BNNSs were exfoliated from the bulk BN using a Temsirolimus manufacturer modified chemical solution route in isopropanol (IPA) at 50°C and with click here ultrasonicating, and subsequently fluorinated with a solution of fluoboric acid (HBF4). The fluorinated h-BNNSs exhibit a significant characteristic of a semiconductor, with a current up to 15.854 μA. Methods All chemicals were purchased from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co. Ltd. (Shanghai, China)

and STK38 used without further purification. Exfoliation of bulk BN to few-layered or mono-layered h-BNNSs In a typical exfoliation process, the bulk boron nitride (BN) powders (0.25 g) were dispersed in a solvent of IPA contained in a 100-mL round-bottomed flask, and then as-formed solution was heated at 50°C for 24 h under magnetic stirring. Subsequently, the solution was subjected to further ultrasonication for 20 h in a low power sonic bath. Then the resulted solution in the flask was stood for 2 days, and the supernatant solution was removed to the centrifugal tube followed by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm for 10 min. Afterwards, the precipitate was washed with acetone several times to remove the IPA absolutely and dried at 60°C overnight. Finally, a milk-white solution of few-layered and mono-layered h-BN nanosheets (h-BNNSs) were obtained. Fluorination of h-BNNSs In a representative fluorination experiment, as-prepared h-BN nanosheets (0.25 g) and HBF4 (50 mL) were mixed in a 100-mL round-bottomed flask. Then the mixture was heated at 50°C for 8 h under magnetic stirring. After this treatment, the mixture was cooled to room temperature naturally. Finally, the fluorinated products were removed to the centrifugal tube, washed with deionized water several times, and dried at 60°C for several hours.

Among 13 serovars, S. Albany, S. Blockley, S. Havana,

and S. Redba as well as few isolates of S. Choleraesuis, S. Enteritidis, and S. Typhimurium lacked plasmid. All other serovars harbored at least one plasmid and differed in plasmid profile. Serovar association between chicken and human isolates S. Albany, S. Anatum, S. Choleraesuis, S. Derby, S. Enteritidis, and S. Typhimurium were in common for 13 chicken serovars and 66 human serovars and other 7 serovars of chicken isolates were not or barely observed in human (Table 2, 4 and 5). Total serovar number of each serogroup #Selleck Dinaciclib randurls[1|1|,|CHEM1|]# decreased from serogroup C1, B, C2, E to D for human isolates (Table 4). Despite of the presence of 66 serovars, there were only presence of 11 H1 antigens including b, c, d, j, k, r, y, eh, g-complex, and z-complex and 5 H2 antigens including -, z6, lw, 1-complex, and en-complex (Table 4). Common antigens in all serogroups were “”i”" for H1 antigen: and “”-”" for H2 antigen. In compared the chicken and human isolates from Taiwan, United Kingdom and United States, the common serovars were S. Typhimurium, S. Enteritidis, S. Anatum, and S. Derby with

common antigens of . “”g complex; i; z4,z24; and e,h”" for H1 antigen and “”- and 1 complex”" for H2 antigen PF299 purchase (Table 5). Table 4 The H1 and H2 antigens of 66 Salmonella serovars of human isolates collected from 2003 to 2005   Serogroup B C1 C2 D E Others H antigen   11 19 9 7 8 12 H1 b ±a – - – + –   c – + – - – -   d + – + + – +   i + + + + + +   k + + + – - –   r – +

– - + –   y – + – - – -   e,h – - – - + –   g complex               f,g/f,g,s/[f],g,m, [p]/g,p +/+/-/-b -/-/-/- -/-/-/- -/-/+/+ -/-/-/- -/-/-/-   g,m, [s]/g,m, [p],s/g,s,t -/-/- -/+/- +/-/- -/-/+ -/-/+ -/-/-      l complex               l,v/l,w/l,z13 -/-/- -/-/- -/-/- +/+/- -/-/+ +/-/-      z complex               z/z4/z10/z29/z38 +/-/+/-/- +/-/+/+/- -/+/+/-/- -/-/-/-/- -/-/-/-/- -/+/-/-/+   Total antigens 6 7 5 4 5 4   – + + + + + +   l,w – - – - + +   z6 – + + – - – H2    1 complex               1,2/1.5/1,7/[1, 2, 7] +/+/+/- +/+/+/+ +/+/±/- -/+/-/- +/+/-/- -/-/-/-      en complex               e,n,x/e,n,z15 -/- +/+ mafosfamide +/- -/+ -/- -/-   Total antigens 2 4 4 3 3 2 a ± means presence (+) or absence (-) of b antigen. b +/+/-/- indicates presence (+) of antigens f,g/f,g,s and absence (-) of antigens [f],g,m, [p]/g, Table 5 Serovars of chicken isolates associated with those of human isolates collected from 2003 to 2005       Prevalence (%) of serovar of chicken and human isolates from different area   H antigen 2003 2004 2005 Serovars of chicken isolates in this study     Chicken Human Chicken Human Chicken Human   1 2 USA a UK b USA T c USA UK USA T USA UK USA T Serogroup B                             Derby f,g [1, 2] 0.2 0.3 0.3 2.4 0 0 3.8 2.7 0.03 0.2 0.34 2.3 Kubacha l,z13,z28 1,7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mons d l,w 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Typhimurinum i 1,2,[7] 4.7 2.8 15.8 25.

At least three experiments were performed, and results from a representative experiment performed in

triplicates are shown. Error bars indicate standard deviation and sometimes fall within the data label. We assayed the resistance of the ΔarcA mutant E. coli to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Overnight culture of the ΔarcA mutant E. find more coli was exposed to H2O2, and its survival was compared to that of the wild type E. coli. The ΔarcA mutant E. coli was more susceptible than the wild type E. coli (Figure 1A). Plasmid pRB3-arcA, which carries a wild type allele of arcA in plasmid pRB3-273C [38, 40], complemented the survival defects in H2O2. This indicates that the susceptible phenotype of the ΔarcA CRT0066101 concentration mutant E. coli was likely due to the deletion of the arcA allele (Figure 1A). Assays

performed with log-phase culture of the ΔarcA mutant E. coli yielded similar results (data not shown). Similar results were obtained with LB broth and M9 minimal medium, results obtained with LB broth are shown (Figure 1). The same analysis was carried out for ArcB, the cognate sensor-kinase of the ArcAB system. The ΔarcB mutant E. coli survived less than the wild type parental strain (Figure 1C). We had attempted to clone a wild type allele of arcB into plasmid pRB3-273C to complement the ΔarcB mutant E. coli. However, the cloning efficiency was unusually low as compared to similar cloning attempts we had conducted with the plasmid vector. Of a total of 7 recombinant plasmids we eventually obtained from several transformations, 5 contained mutations at the start codon of arcB and the remaining 2 had mutations that produced truncations early in the ORF (data not shown). This indicates that an over-expression of arcB from a plasmid is probably toxic to E. coli. As an alternative, we constructed a revertant of Resveratrol the ΔarcB mutant E. coli, in which a wild type arcB allele replaced the deleted arcB allele (see Materials and Methods). The revertant mutant of ΔarcB was shown to have the same resistance to H2O2 as the wild type E. coli (Figure 1C). The ArcAB system is dispensable for H2O2 scavenge To determine the mechanism of how the ArcAB system is involved

in H2O2 resistance, we buy BV-6 analyzed the H2O2 scavenging activity of the ΔarcA and ΔarcB mutant of E. coli K12, since a defect in H2O2 scavenging activity may lead to the susceptibility to H2O2. The overnight culture was diluted in LB containing 2 mM of H2O2, and the concentration of the residual H2O2 was measured after various incubation period. The scavenge of H2O2 was measured as the reduction in H2O2 concentration over the incubation period. Our results indicate that both ΔarcA and ΔarcB mutants scavenged H2O2 normally as compared to the wild type E. coli K12., and no deficiency was observed (Figure 2). Figure 2 The ArcAB system is dispensable for H 2 O 2 scavenge. The ΔarcA (square), ΔarcB (triangle) mutant and the wild type E.

Histomorphometric parameters were measured on the trabecular bone of the metaphysis, on a region of interest consisting of 2 mm width below the growth plate. Measurements were performed find more using an image analysis software (Tablet’measure; GS-9973 in vivo Explora Nova, La Rochelle, France). Histomorphometric parameters were reported in accordance with the ASBMR Committee

nomenclature [28]. Protein extraction and western blot analysis For the isolation of total proteins, right femora from 5-month-old female C57BL/6-129Sv mice were carefully dissected and all their surrounding musculature removed leaving the periosteum intact. We also dissected femora from wild-type C57BL/6 mice that were injected with metformin at 100 mg/kg/daily only for 3 days. The cartilaginous ends of the bones were separated and the remaining femoral shafts were flushed with PBS to remove the marrow. The femoral shafts were then snap-frozen and pulverised under liquid nitrogen using a mortar and pestle, and then lysed in cold denaturing lysis buffer (2 % SDS, 2 M urea, 8 % sucrose, 20 mM sodium glycerophosphate, 1 mM sodium fluoride and 5 mM sodium orthovanadate). Proteins were denatured by boiling for 10 min and concentrations determined by BCA protein assay. Twenty micrograms of proteins was size-fractionated using SDS–PAGE and electrotransferred onto Protran nitrocellulose

membranes (Schliecher and Schuell, GF120918 Dassel, Germany). Membranes were blocked for 1 h in 0.2 % (w/v) I-block (Topix, Bedford, MA, USA) before being incubated with many primary antibodies. The blots were incubated overnight at 4 °C with antibodies against total AMPKα1/2 (tAMPK α1/2, rabbit), phospho-(Thr-172)-AMPKα1/2

(pAMPKα1/2, rabbit) (New England Biolabs, Hitchin, UK) and β-actin (goat) (Dako, Ely, UK), all added at a 1:1,000 dilution. The following secondary antibodies were used, goat anti-rabbit (New England Biolabs) against tAMPK and pAMPK1α1/2 and rabbit anti-goat (Dako) against β-actin antibody, both at 1:2,500 dilution at room temperature for 1 h. Proteins were visualised using the enhanced chemiluminescence detection system (ECL) (GE Healthcare UK Ltd, Little Chalfont, UK). The intensity of the specific bands was quantified by densitometry using Image J software. RNA extraction and quantitative real-time PCR Total RNA was isolated from left whole femora after removal of the bone marrow, as previously described [7]. RNA from three femora in each treatment group was pooled and two separate extractions were performed. Total RNA was reverse-transcribed with Superscript II reverse transcriptase. Real-time QPCR was carried out as described earlier [29] using QuantiTect SYBR green PCR kit and Opticon 2 LightCycler (MJ Research, Waltham, MA, USA). Primer sequences were obtained from Qiagen and are summarised in Table 1. The expression levels for Osterix and Runx2 were normalised to the reference gene 18s rRNA.

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