Species were found harbouring

all the tested substrates, except C. albicans and C. krusei that were not found in Zc disc specimens. Mean percentages (%) of the five target species are summarised in Fig. 6. The most incident species in the MPT group and the Zc group was C. glabrata, found in 83.34% and 16.67%, respectively. In the CPT group, species were more homogeneously distributed. C.glabrata, C. krusei and C. tropicalis were recorded in 79.17% of samples, against 75.00% for C. albicans and 70.84% for C. dubliniensis. The total microbial incidence was significantly different among groups (p = 0.007). The Zc group showed the lowest percentage of incidence when compared to MPT (p < 0.05) Quizartinib and CPT (p < 0.01) groups. MPT and CPT did not show differences in total incidence (p > 0.05). Bacterial and fungal species colonising dental implant sulci have been widely reported in healthy MK0683 and diseased subjects.12 and 18 Recently, the adhesion of micro-organisms, especially bacteria, has been investigated

on the different substrate surfaces. However, such investigations are scarce or still lacking in the applied literature information on the Candida spp. adhesion on dental implant substrates. We conducted this study to assess the Candida biofilm formation on titanium or Zc substrates. Zc has been successful in implantology mainly due to your aesthetic propriety. DNA checkerboard hybridisation was performed to identify and quantify five different species of Candida. The surface roughness of substrates and the total amount of formed biofilm over these surfaces were also evaluated. The mean rates of surface roughness recorded in

our study were similar filipin to the same type of surface described in other studies. Average means range from 0.15 up to 0.30 μm.24 and 25 In consequence, high percentages of biofilm covering were observed for all the tested substrates in both anterior and posterior regions of disc placement. Over 80% up to 91% of total disc area was covered by biofilm after 24 h of oral cavity exposure. No significant differences in the total amount of biofilm were detected between tested materials. Despite these high rates of total formed biofilm, no correlation between biofilm could be detected in relation to the different substrates as the Zc group presented the highest mean roughness when compared to MPT and CPT groups. In terms of cell count, the CPT group showed the highest mean of total cell count than MPT and Zc groups. Similarly to biofilm formation, in our study, the highest surface roughness does not seem to have a relevant impact on Candida spp. adhesion in Zc specimens. Overall, all the target species were found in lower counts in Zc specimens when compared with MPT and CPT groups. Region of disc placement did not show differences in cell count and incidence of species. C. glabrata was the most incident species recovered from tested materials.

, 2005 and Vasko et al., 2004). Both AKT1 and AKT2 were found to enhance the invasiveness of human pancreatic cancer cells, raising the possibility that the effects of Akt1 on invasiveness and motility are cell type specific (Skeen et al., 2006). In vivo studies

in which tumor formation is reduced by crossing mice into an Akt1-deficient background support these observations ( Saji et al., 2005). Our results suggest that the inhibition of invasion of the MDAMB-435 melanoma cell line by biflorin is due to the down-regulation of N-cadherin, which inhibits AKT1 expression. This observation is in agreement with several other studies ( Steelman et al., 2011, Vasko et al., 2004 and Saji et al., 2005) that have reported that PLX4720 AKT1 promotes motility in different cell lines. Thus, its inhibition could abolish cell invasion, as was observed in our model. These observations are particularly important, given the development of both generalized and isoform-specific Akt inhibitors for clinical trials. In summary, to our knowledge, this is the first

mechanistic explanation for how biflorin, a natural compound, abrogates invasion. We showed that in MDA-MB-435 melanoma cells, this Roscovitine cost most likely occurs by the inhibition of N-cadherin and the AKT-1 pathway. Further animal and iRNA studies have to be performed to fully elucidate the mechanisms underlying the biological actions of biflorin. No potential conflicts of interest were disclosed. The authors are grateful to the Brazilian Agencies FINEP, CNPq, CAPES and FAPEAM for fellowships and financial support.

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“The authors regret: “Figs. 3A and B were presented and labelled improperly. The corrected form of figures has shown as follows: The authors would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused. Figure options Download full-size image Download as PowerPoint slide “
“This article has been retracted Olopatadine at the request of the Editors-in-Chief. The authors failed to declare or otherwise acknowledge that a substantial portion of this article had been previously published in the Egyptian Journal of Biomedical Sciences, Vol. 27, July, 2008. One of the conditions of submission of a paper for publication is that authors declare explicitly that their work is original and has not appeared in a publication elsewhere. Re-use of any data should be appropriately cited. “
“Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are an important type of nanomaterial and have various applications, including those in the biomedical field (Endo et al., 2008, Saito et al., 2009 and Usui et al., 2012). However, potential adverse effects of CNTs on human health are of great concern, considering their increasing use in composite biomaterials and also as innovative solutions for biomedical applications or in nanomedicine (Ajayan and Tour, 2007, Boczkowski and Lanone, 2007, Donaldson et al., 2010 and Haniu et al., 2012a).

We also reviewed the molecular basis of Fas-mediated apoptosis in malignant gliomas. Glioblastoma specimens from 97 patients who had not been previously treated were retrieved from the archives of the Departments of Pathology at São Paulo Federal University (n = 60) and Ribeirão Preto Medicine Faculty

at São Paulo University (n = 37). The tumor specimens were re-examined and confirmed to be glioblastomas according to the criteria of the most recent WHO Classification of Central Nervous System Tumors [22]. All of the patients had undergone surgery during the 15-year period from 1992 through 2006. This study was approved by the Ethics Committees of both institutions (Resolution No. 196 of Brazilian National Health Council). Histological sections (4 μm) were cut from each tissue block, Talazoparib purchase stained by hematoxylin–eosin, and carefully reviewed by 3 independent pathologists. The areas most representative of each tumor were selected

for analysis. Cylindrical cores were removed and used in the construction of tissue microarray (TMA) blocks. Five TMA blocks were constructed using a Beecher tissue array instrument™ (Beecher Instruments, Silver Spring, MD, USA), according to the manufacturer’s instructions, in the following stages: (1) Two different areas of the tumor were marked in the original donor block for sampling (necrotic zones and perinecrotic palisading cells were not included in the samples), (2) cylindrical holes were created in the receptor block using the TMA platform. Positions were created in the receptor Selleck GSK 3 inhibitor blocks and were separated by approximately 500 μm such that a matrix of holes for the tissue samples was created, (3) 1-mm diameter cylinders of tissue were extracted from the areas of interest in the donor blocks using a 1-mm-diameter needle (TMArrayer Punch Beecher Instruments™), ID-8 (4) the cylindrical tissues obtained from the donor blocks were

transferred to the holes in the receptor blocks, and (5) finally, the quality of the blocks (representativeness of the tumor samples) was assessed before storage. Twenty-five control cores obtained from normal brains harvested from 25 autopsied patients (6–12 h postmortem) were included as controls. The immunohistochemical procedures were performed on 4-μm-thick sections that were obtained from the TMA blocks and mounted on slides pretreated with 3-minopropyl-triethoxysilane (Sigma). To aid in the adhesion of the slices from the TMA blocks to the silane-treated slides, an adhesive tape system (Instrumedics Inc., Hackensak, NJ, USA) was also used. Briefly, for immunostaining, the slides were deparaffinized, and rehydrated through a graded ethanol series. For antigen retrieval, slides were placed in a 0.01 M citrate buffer (pH 6.0), heated in a steam bath for 3 min, and allowed to cool at room temperature for 30 min. Endogenous peroxidase activity was blocked using 3% hydrogen peroxide for 15 min, followed by washing in 0.05 M Tris buffer (pH 9.5).

W drugą rocznicę jego śmierci Rada Miejska Nowej Soli w uznaniu jego zasług dla rozwoju miasta nazwała jego imieniem miejscowe rondo. Zapamiętamy go jako dobrego człowieka i sumiennego lekarza, o wysokiej kulturze osobistej, niezwykle życzliwego dla wszystkich

potrzebujących pomocy. “
“Pleural effusions are common complications of pediatric bacterial pneumonias. Improving pediatric care does not eliminate pleural empyema (PE) – a life-threatening condition which may also result in the permanent deterioration of lung function. There is debate about treatment options. Simple chest tube drainage is often inadequate in complicated parapneumonic effusions due to presence of viscous fluid with fibrinous debris clogging the tube [1]. Patients with poor response to antibiotics and tube thoracostomy may require surgical decortications [1] and [2]. Length of stay and long-term morbidity see more are reduced by this more aggressive approach. Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) closely imitates open thoracotomy and drainage, and is an effective and less-invasive replacement for the decortications procedure [3]. We performed a retrospective review of the records of 11 consecutive patients who needed surgical treatment because of pleural empyema in regional referral children’s hospital between January

2004, and December 2010. There were 4 boys and 7 girls, and all had postpneumonic empyemas. Their ages ranged from 1 to 19 years (mean 8.9). Before having been referred www.selleckchem.com/products/abt-199.html to our department, all children were managed for sustained pneumonia ID-8 by local pediatricians using broad-spectrum antibiotics for 1 to 9 weeks (mean 3 weeks). Next, children were ineffectively treated in general hospitals using conventional pleural drainages maintained for 1 day to 2 months (mean 12 days). On the admission three youngest children

– boys aged 1, and 4, and girl aged 1 showed clinical signs and symptoms of a septic condition. All patients had anteroposterior and lateral chest radiographs and all patients had computed tomographic scans to guide interventional procedures (Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3, Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). VATS is performed under general anesthesia. Intra-operative monitoring includes an arterial pressure line, large bore intravenous access, a Foley catheter, and pulse oximetry. The patient is positioned as for a posterolateral thoracotomy. The camera port is placed in the 7th or 6th intercostal space in the line of the anterior superior iliac spine or just anterior to this. VATS decortication can be performed through 2 or 3 ports. The working port should be placed over the 5th intercostal space between the mid and anterior axillary lines. The intercostal incision should allow 3 fingers. A third port can be placed posteriorly, positioned to allow access to the anterior part of the pleural cavity. Once the chest is entered, a suction is used to drain the chest of effusion.

1E). Histological analyses also indicated that the proteoglycan-rich cartilage matrix of the palatine find more growth plates was lost (red arrows, Fig. 1E). Gomori trichrome was used to evaluate inflammation [41] and [42], and this staining showed an extensive inflammatory cell infiltrate and significant soft tissue swelling at the wound site (compare Figs. 1B with F, yellow arrow). TUNEL staining [43] on adjacent tissue sections indicated rampant

programmed cell death in the fibrous interzone (asterisk, Fig. 1G), in chondrocytes, in connective tissues surrounding the wound, and in the exposed palatal mucosa (white arrows, Fig. 1G). Immunostaining for the cell proliferation

marker Ki67 [44] indicated that the injury stimulated a burst in mitotic activity at the midpalatal wound site (Supplemental Figs. 2A, B). On PID4, destruction of the midpalatal suture complex reached its zenith. Hard tissue destruction was extensive (dotted yellow line Epigenetic inhibitor clinical trial indicates remaining bone of the palatine processes; Fig. 1I) but signs of healing were also obvious: for example, wound re-epithelialization was nearly complete (white arrows, Fig. 1I), the inflammatory infiltrate had lessened (Fig. 1J), TUNEL staining was reduced (Fig. 1K), and cell proliferation was at its maximum (Supplemental Figs. 2C, D). TRAP activity was also widespread (Fig. 1L) in keeping with the extensive bone http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/CHIR-99021.html resorption observed at this early time

point. By PID7, re-epithelialization of the wound was complete and new bone formation had ensued (dotted yellow line, Fig. 1M). Inflammation was reduced (Fig. 1N), and apoptosis had not worsened relative to PID4 (Fig. 1O). TRAP+ ve osteoclasts were involved with remodeling the newly forming bone (Fig. 1P), and Ki67 immunostaining had returned to near-baseline levels (Supplemental Figs. 2E, F). Collectively, these analyses demonstrated that mucoperiosteal denudation led to the complete obliteration of the midpalatal suture complex. We wondered how a wound that re-epithelialized so quickly and exhibited such robust cell proliferation could nonetheless show such extensive tissue destruction. We began to consider other factors that could have contributed to the breakdown of the midpalatal suture complex, and the most obvious seemed to be the mechanical environment. The youngest cleft palate repair patients exhibit the most severe midfacial hypoplasia; therefore, to mimic this age-related phenomenon we performed mucoperiosteal denudation in mice when they reached post-natal day 8 (P8). At this age, the pups are still nursing and we postulated that biomechanical forces from nursing [34] and tongue pressure [35] would influence the palatal healing process.

Taken together, these data ruled out a direct effect of PhKv on ventricular myocytes, supporting the notion that PhKv antiarrhythmic effects are mediated by ACh dependent mechanism. The main finding of the present study is that PhKv, a peptide purified from the P. nigriventer spider toxin, has antiarrhythmogenic effect in isolated rat hearts. This effect was, at least partially, mediated by the

reduction in the heart rate evoked by acetylcholine release. Additionally, the recombinant form of PhKv also induced a similar protective effect against arrhythmias caused by ischemia/reperfusion. The rat heart is a widely used model to study the metabolic, electrophysiological, and mechanical effects of ischemia and reperfusion, despite the atypical short duration of its ventricular action potential ( Zumino et al., 1997). The mechanism of actions by which PhKv induces its antiarrhythmogenic effect see more was not fully investigated in this study. check details However, it has been reported that decreases in heart rate is an important protective mechanism against cardiac arrhythmias (Vanoli et al., 1991). We found that the reduction in heart rate elicited by PhKv was partially abolished by atropine and potentiated by pyridostigmine, suggesting that this chronotropic effect was mediated

by acetylcholine release. Also, we observed that PhKv was able to induce acetylcholine release in neuromuscular junctions. We thus suggest that the antiarrhythmogenic effect evoked by PhKv was, at least in part, due

to the release of acetylcholine. In fact, it has been reported that vagal stimulation through an electrode chronically implanted around the cervical vagus during acute myocardial ischemia in conscious dogs protected the hearts against ventricular fibrillation (Vanoli et al., 1991). In keeping with these findings, we observed that the antiarrhythmogenic effect of PhKv was abolished by atropine. The “armed” spider P. nigriventer causes severe injuries in humans characterized by various symptoms, including neurotoxicity, intense pain, and cardiac perturbations such as tachycardia, arrhythmia and death ( Vital Brazil et al., 1987 and Cordeiro et al., 1992). The venom of this spider is a oxyclozanide cocktail of toxins containing peptides, free amino acids, histamine and serotonin ( Gomez et al., 2002). Most of the toxins that have been purified from this venom seem to act on ionic channels, including PhKv, a 40 amino acid long peptide that blocks A-type K+ currents in GH3 cells ( Kushmerick et al., 1999). Our action potential recordings showed no evidence for block of the cardiac transient outward potassium current (Ito). For technical reasons, cardiac action potentials were recorded at room temperature and it is possible that lower temperature reduces Ito current density ( Brouillette et al., 2004) and its impact on the action potential.

Then, before the development of novel hits (in vitro activity) and/or leads (in vitro and in vivo activity) as potential cytoprotective drug candidates, based upon structure–property or structure–activity relationships, our purpose was to theoretically investigate the molecular properties regarding different patterns of amino acid substitution related to the motif 2 of lipocalins by applying chemometric and computational chemistry methods. It is well-known that molecular properties are directly dependent on the chemical/molecular structure,

which is in general responsible for the molecular recognition process and, subsequently, biological response or function. In this study, an exploratory data analysis, which comprises hierarchical cluster analysis Selleckchem Natural Product Library (HCA) ( Beebe et al., 1998; Ferreira

et al., 1999; Ferreira, 2002) and principal components analysis (PCA) ( Beebe et al., 1998; Ferreira et al., 1999; Ferreira, 2002), was carried out to provide the samples (seven amino acids sequences) classification through either a similarity index or a linear combination of the original data. The findings will be helpful to confirm or not the pM2c sequence as the lipocalins’ signature. The choice of data set was based upon the findings from FASTA sequences’ alignment. The Lopap monomer sequence was used as reference. The tool Sequence Annotated by Structure (SAS) from European Bioinformatics Institute website (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/thornton-srv/databases/sas/) was employed in this step. SAS uses FASTA to scan a given protein sequence against all the proteins of known 3D structure in the Protein Galactosylceramidase Data Bank (PDB) (www.pdb.org; Berman selleck chemicals et al., 2000). The sequences best scored having more than 25% of total identity with Lopap monomer sequence were evaluated, and it was chosen ten different patterns of seven amino acid residues substitution regarding motif 2 (see Fig. 2). The structure resolution value was considered

as a tiebreaker criterion when more than one sequence had the same pattern of amino acids substitution at motif 2. Then, proteins from different sources (insect, lobster, chicken, and human) and having distinct functions were selected. The PDB IDs and polypeptide chains used in the multiple alignment process as well as the total identity (%) of each protein against Lopap monomer sequence are listed as follows: 1t0v:A (39% identity; butterfly engineered lipocalin Flu A) (Mills et al., 2009), 1bbp:A (37% identity; butterfly bilin-binding protein) (Huber et al., 1987), 1z24:A (37% identity; insecticyanin) (Holden et al., 1987), 1kxo:A (35% identity; butterfly engineered lipocalin Diga 16) (Korndoerfer et al., 2003), 2hzr:A (33% identity; human apolipoprotein) (Eichinger et al., 2007), 1iiu:A (30% identity; chicken plasma retinol-binding protein) (Zanotti et al., 2001), 1jyj (29% identity; human serum retinol-binding protein) (Greene et al.

A monopolar electrode (active) was inserted into the muscle of interest. An identical electrode (reference) was inserted subcutaneously into the lateral and distal-most tendinous portion of the gastroc-soleus complex, ipsilateral

to the muscle studied. A subdermal needle (ground) was inserted subcutaneously into tendinous tissue posterior to and near the reference electrode. Selleckchem RO4929097 Abnormal spontaneous activity in the form of denervation potentials (positive sharp waves and fibrillations) was recorded using an electromyography abnormality score scale (Fig. 5A). F2-isoprostanes and F4-neuroprostanes were measured in ipsilateral brain using the gas chromatography–mass spectrometry method of Morrow and Roberts [25]. Tissue was collected and homogenized in chloroform:methanol containing 0.005% butylatedhydroxytoluene (BHT) to prevent auto-oxidation, dried under a stream of nitrogen, and re-suspended in methanol containing BHT. Esterified F2-isoprostanes in phospholipids were saponified, to free fatty acids from lipids, by adding aqueous potassium hydroxide. Then, the sample was acidified and diluted

with water. Next, deuterated-F2-isoprostane internal standard was added to the mixture. For the measurement of free F2-isoprotanes/F2-isofuranes in plasma, the extraction and hydrolysis steps were omitted, and the sample was simply acidified, diluted, and the internal standard added. The mixture was subsequently run Etomidate on

a silica column to separate isoprostanes/isofuranes find more from bulk fatty acids. The eluate was converted to pentafluorobenzyl esters, by treatment with pentafluorobenzyl bromide to improve separation efficiency. The mixture was then subjected to thin layer chromatography to remove the excess pentafluorobenzyl bromide and unreacted fatty acids. The F2-isoprotane/isofurane fraction was extracted using ethyl acetate, and analyzed. F2-isoprostanes were quantified by peak height, the data were corrected with the internal standard, and results were calculated as nanogram of F2-isoprostanes per mL of plasma or per gram tissue. F4-neuroprostanes, a lipid peroxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid was also determined some modifications of the F2-isoprostane method. Briefly, 100–200 mg tissue was homogenized in ice-cold Folch solution containing BHT. Lipids were then extracted and chemically hydrolyzed with 15% KOH. After acidification with HCl and addition of a stable isotope-labeled internal standard, 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α-d4, F4-neuroprostanes were applied to a C18 Sep-Pak cartridge and a silica Sep-Pak column for further purification. Unlike the F2-isoprostane assay, the washing step for silica columns used an ethyl acetate/heptane (75:25) mixture instead of pure ethyl acetate because of the polarity difference between F2-isoprostanes and F4-neuroprostanes.

The pattern of coat color that had evolved GSK-3 signaling pathway as camouflage

in the wild, depigmented to piebold, one of the most striking mutations among domestic animals and seen frequently in dogs, cats, sheep, donkeys, horses, pigs, goats, mice, and cattle. About 35% of the co-variation in the domesticated traits was genetic in origin as assessed by cross fostering newborns and transplanting embryos between wild and tame foxes. Because behavior is rooted in biology, selection for tameness selected for physiological characteristics with broad effects. Similar effects of de-pigmentation have been found in laboratory rats, which are typically albinos with white coats and pink eyes. Black rats are more aggressive (and so also make poorer pets). However, black rats with white spots (from the “white spotting gene”) are calmer and more easily handled. A 15-year study of selection for tameness over 30 generations in wild Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) found the percentage of piebald rats increased rapidly until over 70% had white bellies and about 50% had white feet and ankles or “socks” as they are called ( Trut et al., 1997). In this experiment in rats, selection for tameness correlated with their depigmentation. Dogs too, show a relationship between coloring RG7422 cell line and behavior (Coren, 2011). Black dogs are more difficult to get adopted from shelters and are rated as less desirable as pets.

Using computer images of black, brown, and yellow Labrador Retrievers to control for size, pose, and background, Coren found people had more negative attitudes to the black than to the brown or yellow retrievers. Observers rated the black dogs as less friendly, less likely to make a good pet, and to be more aggressive. Assuming that people’s attitudes and beliefs about dogs have some validity, this study provides further support for the pigmentation hypothesis. A first examination of whether melanin based pigmentation plays a role in human aggression and sexuality (as seen in non-human animals), is to compare people of African descent with those of European descent and observe

whether darker skinned individuals average higher levels of aggression and sexuality (with violent crime the main indicator of aggression). Internationally, we found Blacks are over-represented in crime statistics relative to Whites and Asians. In Canada, a government Clomifene commission found that Blacks were five times more likely to be in jail than Whites and 10 times more likely than Asians (Ontario, 1996). In Britain, the Home Office (1999) found that Blacks, who were 2% of the general population, made up 15% of the prison population. In the US, Taylor and Whitney (1999) analyzed the FBI Uniform Crime Statistics and National Crime Victimization Surveys from the US Department of Justice and found that since record keeping began at the turn of the century and throughout the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, African Americans engaged in proportionately more acts of violence than other groups.

Fluorescent dyes used for single molecule fluorescence applications commonly exhibit a maximum extinction coefficient ɛmax > 80.000 mol−1 cm−1 and a fluorescence quantum yield of Φ > 0.1. Their fluorescence lifetime is of the order of a few nanoseconds and their Staurosporine price size is roughly one nanometer. Bioconjugation is commonly carried out with fluorophore derivatives that target the functional side chains of specific native or engineered amino acids in a protein. The fluorophore attachment site has to be carefully chosen in order to prevent label-induced alteration of the protein’s activity and folding. The coupling reaction should be efficient in aqueous buffers at neutral pH and ambient

temperatures as most proteins MG-132 manufacturer are not soluble in organic solvents and tend to unfold or aggregate at high temperatures

and in highly basic or acidic environments. In addition, the coupling reaction needs to be highly chemoselective to ensure site-specific labelling of a single site in the protein. To this end coupling to amines and thiols are the most common labelling strategies that work efficiently under mild reaction conditions [10]. Newly developed technologies like bioorthogonal chemistry in combination with genetic engineering facilitate the site-specific labelling of unnatural amino acids (UAA) at any given position in a protein [11] improving the freedom of label positioning particularly in large proteins HAS1 hitherto inaccessible for site-specific labelling because of first, their high cysteine content, second, an unfavourable position of the cysteine residue in the core of the protein or third, the essential role of the cysteine in the coordination of bivalent metal ions as seen

in zinc-containing proteins. The coupling chemistries used in bioorthogonal reactions rely on unique chemical groups (e.g. para-acetyl or para-azide moieties) that are not part of the biological repertoire of amino acids [12• and 13]. However, several conditions have to be fulfilled to make such a strategy successful. The UAA — that is supplied to the growth media — has to cross the membrane of the bacteria and be compatible with the bacterial metabolism (i.e. not be cytotoxic). A unique amber stop codon (TAG) is engineered into the desired labelling site that serves as a coding codon for the unnatural amino acid. Plasmid-borne pairs of engineered orthogonal tRNAs and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases facilitate the efficient loading of the UAA to the tRNA and subsequent incorporation of the UAA at amber stop codons. tRNA loading by the tRNA synthetase has to be highly specific for the exogenous amino acid but at the same time needs to be compatible with the bacterial translation machinery. Directed protein evolution schemes yielded several orthogonal pairs that have been adapted for use in Escherichia coli [ 14, 15 and 16].