Finally, we identify four putative solute carriers; in the human genome. The solute carriers include a check details biomedically important group of membrane proteins that is diverse in sequence and structure. The proposed classification of solute carriers,

combined with experiment, reveals new relationships among the individual families and identifies new solute carriers. The classification scheme will inform future attempts directed at modeling the structures of the solute carriers, a prerequisite for describing the substrate specificities of the individual families.”
“The personality dimension of schizotypy is well established, and schizotypal traits can be taken to represent a proneness toward developing psychosis. Yet, there are competing theories about the latent structure of schizotypy. More specifically, there is controversy

over the extent to which this propensity toward psychosis is present only in a small proportion of the population, or whether it is spread dimensionally throughout the general community. On the basis of accumulating research findings the present article argues for a fully dimensional model of schizotypy. It describes recent neurobiological, neuropsychological, social and environmental evidence supporting the idea that schizotypy in healthy populations, and disorders on the schizophrenia spectrum are fundamentally linked. Directions for further research GW4869 are also considered. (c) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Purpose: To our knowledge we report the first

single center, prospective, randomized study comparing holmium laser enucleation and high performance GreenLight (TM) prostate photoselective vaporization as surgical treatment of prostatic Ketotifen adenomas greater than 60 ml.

Materials and Methods: A total of 80 patients with a large prostatic adenoma were randomly assigned to surgical treatment with holmium laser enucleation or photoselective vaporization. International Prostate Symptom Score, International Index of Erectile Function-15, maximum flow rate, post-void residual urine, serum prostate specific antigen and transrectal ultrasound volume were recorded.

Results: Patient baseline characteristics were similar for holmium laser enucleation and photoselective vaporization. Operative time and catheter removal time were almost equal in the 2 groups (p = 0.7 and 0.2, respectively). Eight vaporization cases were converted to transurethral prostate resection or holmium laser enucleation intraoperatively due to bleeding. A significantly higher maximum flow rate and lower post-void residual urine were noted in holmium laser cases during the entire followup (at 1 year each p = 0.02). However, no significant difference in International Prostate Symptom Score, quality of life or International Index of Erectile Function-15 was detected.

Furthermore, in contrast to CD4, none of the anti-CD4bs MAbs induced the expression of the 17b epitope on cell surface-expressed cleaved Env trimers. We conclude that potent CD4bs bnMAbs can display differences in the way they recognize and access the CD4bs and that mimicry of CD4, as assessed by inducing conformational changes in monomeric gp120 that lead to enhanced exposure of the CD4i site, is not uniquely correlated with effective neutralization at the site of CD4 binding on HIV-1.”
“The aim of this study was to examine the effects of

repetitive www.selleckchem.com/products/wortmannin.html transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on human brain activity. The effects of low-frequency magnetic stimulation were evaluated by analyzing the P300 component of event-related potentials (ERPs). A figure eight-shaped flat coil was used to stimulate the region over the left or the right supramarginal gyrus, which is considered to be the origin of the P300 component. We examined the effect of rTMS on the latency of the P300 component in 14 healthy individuals by applying 100 magnetic pulses for each stimulus point. Stimulus frequencies were 1.00, 0.75, 0.50, and 0.25 Hz rTMS. The auditory oddball task was used to elicit the P300s before and shortly after rTMS. We found that P300 latencies varied according to the stimulation frequency and the hemisphere of rTMS application. A 1.00 Hz rTMS pulse train over the left supramarginal gyrus shortened the P300 latencies

by similar to 15ms at Fz. A 0.5 Hz rTMS pulse train over the left supramarginal gyrus lengthened the P300 latencies by similar to 15ms at Fz. In contrast, MS-275 0.75 and 0.25 Hz rTMS pulse trains over the left supramarginal

gyrus and 1.00, 0.75, 0.50, and 0.25 Hz rTMS pulse trains over the right supramarginal gyrus did not alter P300 Tyrosine-protein kinase BLK latencies. These results indicate that rTMS frequency affects cognitive processing. We suggest that the effects of rTMS vary according to the activity of excitatory and inhibitory synapses. In addition, the effects of rTMS over the left supramarginal gyrus are dependent on stimulus frequency. NeuroReport 23:1065-1070 (C) 2012 Wolters Kluwer Health \ Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.”
“Predicting mutations that enhance protein-protein affinity remains a challenging task, especially for high-affinity complexes. To test our capability to improve the affinity of such complexes, we studied interaction of acetylcholinesterase with the snake toxin, fasciculin. Using the program ORBIT, we redesigned fasciculin’s sequence to enhance its interactions with Torpedo californica acetylcholinesterase. Mutations were predicted in 5 out of 13 interfacial residues on fasciculin, preserving most of the polar inter-molecular contacts seen in the wild-type toxin/enzyme complex. To experimentally characterize fasciculin mutants, we developed an efficient strategy to over-express the toxin in Escherichia coli, followed by refolding to the native conformation.

This proteotyping approach complements conventional PCR approaches and should aid in the monitoring of the evolution of the influenza virus in both humans and animals. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“Voltage-gated sodium channels (Nay channels) play a pivotal click here role in neuronal excitability; they are specifically targeted by mu-conotoxins from the venom of marine cone snails. These peptide toxins bind to the outer vestibule of the channel pore thereby blocking ion conduction through Nay channels. mu-Conotoxin

SIIIA from Conus striatus was shown to be a potent inhibitor of neuronal sodium channels and to display analgesic effects in mice, albeit the molecular targets are not unambiguously known. We therefore studied recombinant Nay channels expressed in mammalian cells using the whole-cell patch-clamp method. Synthetic mu SIIIA slowly and partially

blocked rat Na(V)1.4 channels with an apparent IC(50) of 0.56 +/- 0.29 mu M; the block was not complete, leaving at high concentration a residual current component of about 10% with a correspondingly reduced single-channel conductance. At 10 mu M, mu SIIIA potently blocked rat Na(V)1.2, rat and human Na(V)1.4, and mouse Na(V)1.6 channels; human Na(V)1.7 channels were only inhibited by 58.1 +/- 4.9%, whereas human Na(V)1.5 as well as rat and human Na(V)1.8 were insensitive. Employing domain chimeras between rNa(V)1.4 and hNa(V)1.5, we located the determinants for mu SIIIA Adenosine specificity in the first half of the channel GSK461364 purchase protein with a major contribution of domain-2 and a minor contribution of domain-1. The latter was largely accounted for by the alteration in the TTX-binding site (Tyr401 in rNa(V)1.4, Cys for Na(V)1.5, and Ser for Na(V)1.8). Introduction of domain-2 pore loops of all tested channel isoforms into rNa(V)1.4 conferred the mu SIIIA phenotype of the respective donor channels highlighting the importance of the domain-2 pore loop as the major determinant for mu SIIIA’s subtype specificity. Single-site substitutions identified residue Ala728 in rNa(V)1.4

as crucial for its high sensitivity toward mu SIIIA. Likewise, Asn889 at the homologous position in hNa(V)1.7 is responsible for the channel’s reduced mu SIIIA sensitivity. These results will pave the way for the rational design of selective Nay-channel antagonists for research and medical applications. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Antibodies to non-structural protein 1 (NS1) of West Nile virus (WNV) have been used to differentiate WNV infection from infection by serologically cross-reactive flaviviruses, including Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), in horses. However, since the inactivated West Nile (WN) vaccine has been reported to induce NS1 antibodies, there is concern about the reliability of using NS1-based assays for testing vaccinated horses.

All rights reserved.”
“In a functional genomic screen performed by combining an Arabidopsis-yellow fluorescent protein (YFP)-fused complementary DNA (cDNA) library, rat fibroblasts as host and automatic microscopy, we found a short protein with a predictable trans-membrane domain encoded on chromosome 2. In rat fibroblasts, its pattern of distribution was to various organelle-like structures. From the databases, we learned that it has another family member in Arabidopsis and homologs in several other AC220 in vitro plants, Chlamydomonas and fungi, with a highly conserved N-terminal region. We named this

protein from Arabidopsis short membrane protein (SMP) 2. No SMP homologs were found in mammalian sequence databases. When the full-length cDNAs of SMP2 was fused to YFP under the 35S promoter, comparable distribution was observed in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves, suggesting an unknown, evolutionarily conserved localization signal. Similar localization was observed when SMP2 was expressed in N. benthamiana leaves under the control of its own 5′ regulatory sequences. Colocalization studies with green fluorescent protein and red fluorescent protein chimeras revealed its colocalization www.selleckchem.com/products/prt062607-p505-15-hcl.html with chloroplasts,

peroxisomes, and mitochondria. No localization of SMP2 was observed in the Golgi. Immunostaining with specific antibodies corroborated the SMP2 localization to the three organelles.”
“Many studies have reported on vulnerable areas of the brain in hypoxic ischemic brain injury (HI-BI). However, little is known about the involvement of neural tracts following HI-BI. We investigated neural tract injuries in adult patients with HI-BI, using diffusion tensor tractography (DTT). Vitamin B12 Twelve consecutive patients with HI-BI and 12 control subjects were recruited for this study. We classified the patients into two subgroups according to the preservation of alertness: subgroup A-5 patients who had

intact alertness and subgroup B-7 patients who had impaired alertness. DTI-Studio software was used for evaluation of seven neural tracts: corticospinal, cingulum, fornix, superior longitudinal fasciculus, inferior longitudinal fasciculus, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, and optic radiation. We measured the DTT parameters (fractional anisotropy, apparent diffusion coefficient and voxel number) of each neural tract. In the individual analysis, all 12 patients showed injuries in all 24 neural tracts in terms of both DTT parameters and integrity, except for the corticospinal tract (75.0% injury). In the group analysis, the patient group showed neural injuries in all 24 neural tracts. In comparison of subgroups A and B, subgroup B showed more severe injuries: subgroup B showed a higher rate of disruption (39.8%) than subgroup A (12.9%) on individual DTTs and subgroup B had more severe injuries in both the cingulum and superior longitudinal fasciculus. In conclusion, we found that extensive injuries in the neural tracts were accompanied by HI-BI.

“
“Aims:

To evaluate the antioxidant effect of carotenoids from Deinococcus radiodurans

on protein.

Methods and Results:

Deinococcus selleck kinase inhibitor radiodurans strain R1 (ATCC 13939) and its mutant strain R1 Delta crtB were used for this study. The total carotenoids (R1ex) from D. radiodurans were obtained by extraction with acetone/methanol (7 : 2, by vol), and their antioxidant activity was measured using the DPPH center dot (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) system. The protein oxidation level, in vitro and in the cell, was measured using the DNPH (2,4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine) method. The carotenoid extract R1ex scavenged 40 center dot 2% DPPH center dot radicals compared to beta-carotene (31 center dot 7%) at a concentration of 0 center dot 5 mg ml-1.

The intracellular level of protein oxidation in mutant R1 Delta crtB, which does not contain carotenoid, was 0 center dot 0212 mmol mg-1 protein which is significantly greater than that in the wild type (0 center dot 0169 mmol mg-1 protein) following the treatment with H(2)O(2). The purified major carotenoid product (deinoxanthin) from the wild type showed a greater inhibition of oxidative damage in bovine serum albumin than lycopene or lutein.

Conclusions:

Carotenoids Gefitinib cost prevent protein oxidation and contribute to the resistance to cell damage in D. radiodurans.

Significance and Impact of the Study:

Our results provide the evidence that carotenoids can protect proteins in D. radiodurans against oxidative stress.”
“BACKGROUND

Head-lice infestation is prevalent worldwide, especially in children 3 to 11 years old. Topical insecticides (i.e., pyrethroids and malathion) used as a lotion, applied twice at an interval of 7 to 11 days, are typically used for treatment. Resistance of lice to insecticides, particularly pyrethroids, results in treatment failure. The efficacy of alternative agents is controversial.

METHODS

We conducted a

multicenter, cluster-randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, controlled trial comparing oral ivermectin (at a dose of 400 mu g per kilogram of body weight) with 0.5% malathion lotion, each given on days 1 and 8, for patients with live lice not eradicated by topical insecticide SPTLC1 used 2 to 6 weeks before enrollment. The cluster was defined as the household. Infestation was confirmed and monitored by means of fine-toothed combing. Patients were at least 2 years of age and weighed at least 15 kg; all were treated at the study sites. The primary end point was the absence of head lice on day 15.

RESULTS

A total of 812 patients from 376 households were randomly assigned to receive either ivermectin or malathion. In the intention-to-treat population, 95.2% of patients receiving ivermectin were lice-free on day 15, as compared with 85.0% of those receiving malathion (absolute difference, 10.2 percentage points; 95% confidence interval [CI], 4.6 to 15.7; P<0.001). In the per-protocol population, 97.1% of patients in the ivermectin group were lice-free on day 15, as compared with 89.

7 mm +/- 1.40 mm for the tragus. The increase of the electrode measurement dispersions is significant between the phantom and the human subject with a mean variation of 2.39 mm +/- 1.26 mm. In certain conditions, up to 15% of the measurements may be considered as outliers.

Conclusion. The precision significantly decreases for this application in the click here following

cases: (1) physical contacts between the stylus/transmitter/receiver cables, (2) presence of magnetic objects in the surrounding of the EMT system, (3) skin and hair softness and (4) subject’s head movements. (C) 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.”
“Theoretical studies of quasispecies usually focus on two properties of those populations at the mutation-selection equilibrium, namely asymptotic growth rate and population diversity. It has been postulated that, as a consequence of the high error rate of quasispecies replication, an increase of neutrality facilitates population optimization by reducing the amount of mutations with a deleterious effect on fitness. In this study we analyse how the optimization of equilibrium

properties is affected when a quasispecies evolves in an environment perturbed through frequent bottleneck events. By means of a simple model we demonstrate that high neutrality may be detrimental when the population has to overcome repeated reductions in the population size, and that the property to be optimized Z-IETD-FMK datasheet in this situation is the time required to regenerate

the quasispecies, i.e. its adaptability. In the scenario described, neutrality and adaptability cannot be simultaneously optimized. When fitness is equated with long-term survivability, high neutrality is the appropriate strategy in constant environments, unless while populations evolving in fluctuating environments are fitter when their neutrality is low, such that they can respond faster to perturbations. Our results might be relevant to better comprehend how a minority virus could displace the circulating quasispecies, a fact observed in natural infections and essential in viral evolution. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Since about 15 years, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used as a technique to investigate the function of specific cortical regions. Single pulse TMS studies have targeted the dorsolateral premotor cortex (dlPMC) to characterize premotor motor interactions in movement disorders. Repetitive TMS (rTMS) trials have targeted the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) to treat depression. In almost all previous studies, these targets have been defined according to a “”standard”" scalp distance to the site of stimulation evoking motor responses of maximal amplitude in the contralateral hand (“”hand motor hotspot”" corresponding to the primary motor cortex, M1). The “”standard”" procedure of coil positioning locates the dlPMC and dlPFC as 2-3 and 5 cm, respectively, anterior to the “”hand motor hotspot”".

Moreover, we also revealed that this activation of ERK1/2 occurred through transient receptor potential (TRP) A1, a member of the TRP family of ion channels. In contrast, it is known that the activation of p38 MAPK (p38) contributes to the development and maintenance of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. On the basis of these results, the aim of this study was to investigate the involvement of p38 and TRPA1 in acute visceral pain. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were used.

Electromyographic responses to gastric distension (GD) were recorded from the acromiotrapezius muscle. We then examined the phosphorylated-p38 (p-p38) labeling in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) after GD using immunohistochemistry. YM155 Noxious GD induced p-p38 in DRG neurons with a peak at 2 min after GD. We also found a stimulus intensity-dependent increase in the number of p-p38-immunoreactive neurons in the DRG. Intrathecal administration of the p38 inhibitor, SB203580, attenuated the electromyographic response to noxious GD. Furthermore, intrathecal administration of TRPA1 antisense oligodeoxynucleotide decreased the p38 activation in DRG neurons. The activation of p38 pathways in DRG neurons by noxious GD may be correlated with the activation state of the primary afferent neurons through TRPA1, and further, involved in the development of visceral

pain. NeuroReport 24:68-72 (C) 2013 Wolters Kluwer Health vertical bar Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. NeuroReport 2013, 24:68-72″
“Improved survival of patients with acute Saracatinib in vivo lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) has emerged from identifying new prognostic markers; however, 20% of children still suffer recurrence. Previously, the altered expression of Fat1 cadherin has been implicated in a number of solid tumors. In this report, in vitro analysis shows

that Fat1 protein is expressed by a range of leukemia cell lines, but not by normal peripheral blood (PB) and bone marrow (BM) cells from healthy donors. In silico analysis of expression of array data from clinical leukemias found significant levels of Fat1 transcript in 11% of acute myeloid Fossariinae leukemia, 29% and 63% of ALL of B and T lineages, respectively, and little or no transcript present in normal PB or BM. Furthermore, in two independent studies of matched diagnosis – relapse of precursor B-cell (preB) ALL pediatric samples (n = 32 and n = 27), the level of Fat1 mRNA expression was prognostic at the time of diagnosis. High Fat1 mRNA expression was predictive of shorter relapse-free and overall survival, independent of other traditional prognostic markers, including white blood cell count, sex and age. The data presented demonstrate that Fat1 expression in preB-ALL has a role in the emergence of relapse and could provide a suitable therapeutic target in high-risk preB-ALL.

Such an approach allowed excellent visualization without drilling of the clinoid process or mobilization of the optic nerve and potential control of the proximal and distal internal carotid artery. An intraoperative arteriogram showed obliteration of both aneurysms with patency of the surrounding vasculature.

The patient did well postoperatively and was subsequently discharged home without any neurological deficits.

CONCLUSION: An endoscopic endonasal approach was immediately safe and Blasticidin S concentration effective for the clipping of both paraclinoidal aneurysms. Although there were benefits achieved from this particular unconventional approach, surgical clipping via traditional craniotomy and endovascular coiling are the established methods of aneurysm treatment and should always be primarily considered. More cases will determine the efficacy and safety of this approach, which should be attempted only by very experienced teams trained in both cerebrovascular and endonasal neurosurgery.”
“To explore whether nitrogen

retention can differ on an isonitrogenous diet by changing when protein is consumed, we performed a short-term study in older individuals (64.5 +/- 2.0 years) performing daily exercise while in energy balance. Participants consumed an isonitrogenous-isocaloric diet with the timing of a protein or carbohydrate beverage https://www.selleckchem.com/products/fosbretabulin-disodium-combretastatin-a-4-phosphate-disodium-ca4p-disodium.html after exercise (protein after exercise [PRO], carbohydrate after exercise [CHO]) versus earlier in the day. Three-day mean energy balance (PRO: 202 +/- 36 kcal and CHO: 191 +/- 44 kcal; p = .68) did not differ between trials, but 3-day mean nitrogen balance was significantly more positive in the PRO (1.2 +/- 0.32 g N) trial than the CHO trial (0.8 +/- 0.45 g N; p < .05). Older individuals were better able to maintain nitrogen balance by simply changing when a portion of an identical amount of daily protein was consumed.”
“BACKGROUND AND IMPORTANCE: This is the first report of Sclareol using the superior lateral mass as an alternative starting point for C1 posterior screw placement, demonstrating the importance of recognizing vertebral artery (VA) anomaly in

deciding the surgical strategy for C1 screw placement.

CLINICAL PRESENTATION: A 56-year-old man presented with severe neck pain after a fall. Imaging demonstrated an unstable bursting fracture at C4, C1-2 instability, and a subluxation at C2-3. Computed tomography angiography indicated that the persistent first intersegmental artery was located on the left side. The patient underwent anterior-posterior cervical fixation and fusion. Posterior C1 fixation was done with polyaxial screw rod construct using C1 superior lateral mass on the left side and C1 inferior lateral mass on the right side. The patient had no immediate postoperative deficits. At the 8-month follow-up examination, the patient was neurologically intact with a solid cervical fusion.

The study end point was a significant change in serum prostate specific antigen, clinical progression or the end of the 6-month observation period.

Results: A total of 18 patients 64 to 85 years old (median age 73) were enrolled in the study during a 20-month period, of whom 17 could be analyzed. Five of the 17 patients (29%) withdrew from the study prematurely, including 4 of 5 because of prostate specific antigen progression and/or tumor associated complications, and 1 due to an allergic reaction to lycopene. Median prostate specific antigen doubled in 6 months from 42.7 ng/ml (range 13.8 to 521.6) in 17 patients to 96.4 ng/ml (range

13.5 to 1,240) in 12. Stable BIIB057 ic50 prostate specific antigen was observed in 5 of 17 patients (29%). None

of the patients had a greater than 50% decrease in prostate specific antigen. Patients experienced a slight deterioration in mean health status at the end of the study compared to the outset. However, two-thirds of the patients experienced an improved or unchanged situation regardless of the clinical and biochemical course.

Conclusions: No clinically relevant benefits were shown for patients with advanced stages of the disease.”
“Purpose: We determined whether thalidomide can prolong progression-free survival in men with biochemically recurrent prostate cancer treated with limited androgen deprivation therapy.

Materials and Methods: A total of 159 patients were enrolled in a double-blind randomized trial to determine if thalidomide can improve the efficacy of a gonadotropin-releasing A-1155463 datasheet hormone agonist in hormone responsive patients with an increasing prostate specific antigen after primary definitive therapy for prostate cancer. Patients were randomized to 6 months of gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist followed by 200 mg per day oral thalidomide or placebo (oral phase A). At the time of prostate specific antigen progression gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist was restarted for 6 additional months. Patients were then crossed over to the opposite drug and were treated until

prostate specific Sclareol antigen progression (oral phase B). Testosterone and dihydroxytestosterone were likewise monitored throughout the study.

Results: During oral phase A the median time to prostate specific antigen progression was 15 months for the thalidomide group compared to 9.6 months on placebo (p = 0.21). The median time to prostate specific antigen progression during oral phase B for the thalidomide group was 17.1 vs 6.6 months on placebo (p = 0.0002). No differences in time to serum testosterone normalization between the thalidomide and placebo arms were documented during oral phase A and oral phase B. Thalidomide was tolerable although dose reductions occurred in 47% (58 of 124) of patients.

Conclusions: Despite thalidomide having no effect on testosterone normalization, there was a clear effect on prostate specific antigen progression during oral phase B.

5% CO(2) inhalation significantly increased STAI-S and GAD-related VAS scores (all p < 0.05) compared with air inhalation. ATD had no effect on any of these measures despite the substantial

reduction in free tryptophan/LNAA ratio.

Although SSRIs treat GAD effectively, the present results suggest that the mechanism of action selleck inhibitor is different to that seen in panic, social anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorders. Successful SSRI treatment of GAD may involve long-term receptor changes or alterations in other neurotransmitter systems downstream of serotonin.”
“Recent neuroimaging studies indicate that there may be common ground for esthetic and moral judgments. However, because previous studies focused on either esthetic or moral judgments and did not compare the two directly, the issue remains open whether Dibutyryl-cAMP datasheet a common ground actually exists. We employed functional magnetic resonance imaging in order to study, in a within-subjects design, the potential equivalence of esthetic and moral judgments. One-line verses from

poems and short moral statements were used as stimuli. Our results suggest a common basis for the two judgment categories, revealing comparable neural networks mainly the orbitomedial prefrontal cortex. However, additional activations were found in the moral judgment condition, that is, in the posterior cingulate cortex, the precuneus, and the temporoparietal junction. These regions have been related to understanding the minds of others. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“A 38-year-old man underwent ligation of the superior mesenteric vein due to traumatic disruption. He developed severe bowel edema with large fluid losses through the open

abdominal incision. Bacterial neuraminidase On postoperative day 9, a superior mesenteric vein bypass was performed with autogenous femoral vein, and this resulted in prompt resolution of the bowel edema and allowed abdominal wound closure. He was able to resume a normal diet and was discharged on postinjury day 39. A magnetic resonance imaging scan performed 1 year later showed a patent graft. (J Vasc Surg 2012;55:1773-4.)”
“Schizophrenia is commonly associated with impairments in pre-attentive change detection, as represented by reduced mismatch negativity (MMN). While the neurochemical basis of MMN has been linked to N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor function, the roles of the dopaminergic and/or the serotonergic systems are not fully explored in humans.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of acutely depleting dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) alone or simultaneously by depleting their amino acid precursors on MMN in healthy participants.