The first of these, by Green and Knutzen (2003) CDK inhibitors in clinical trials examined some 10 years of reference-site monitoring in Norwegian waters for metals and organohalogens (including polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, polychlorinated naphthalenes, Toxaphene and brominated flame retardants), providing

invaluable local and international baseline data. The following articles appeared some 4 years later, by Boehm et al. (2007) assessing hydrocarbon exposure in the ever-topical Prince William Sound, and by Fowler et al. (2007) detailing temporal changes (over 19 years) of petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorines and heavy metals in Southern Oman. At the time that the latter two Baseline Special Articles were published, I made a plea (Richardson, 2007) for further papers detailing temporal monitoring, which I described as the “logical conclusion” of any Baseline work. After all, what makes an initial Baseline survey truly worthwhile (I argued) is follow-up work to examine the selleck chemicals llc possibilities of change, be that

positive or negative. The Baseline Special Article featured in the December issue of Marine Pollution Bulletin ( de Mora et al., 2011) again returns this group of authors to the seas of the Middle East. The Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) Sea Area includes the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, and is bordered by eight countries (Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) which together produce some 25% of the world’s oil. As such, this is a potentially fragile area,

prone to petroleum contamination from a variety of sources, including production facilities, shipping and transportation – not to mention military conflicts. In 1991, as you will all remember, this locality was the subject of pheromone the biggest oil spill in history to that point: a direct result of the Gulf War. This engagement resulted in the environmental release of more than 6 million barrels of crude oil. Our Baseline authors note that, in addition to oil spillage, high temperatures, salinity and UV exposure in the ROPME Sea Area push local species to their limits, and as a result any contamination in the area only worsens what is already a delicate situation. Added to these stresses is the considerable development of industry in the area, not to mention urban growth, expanded recreational activities and agricultural development. On top of this, three wars within 25 years is an influence that could have been done without! Oiling of this fragile coastline is understandably a problem of concern.

Spectra were obtained from m/z 100–1000 atomic mass units over 12 s with 10 MCA scans acquired. Cholesteryl esters were then detected by LC/MS/MS, having adapted a method described by Ferreira et al [17]. Cholesteryl esters were separated on a C18 ODS2, 5 µm, 150 × 4.6 mm column (Waters Ltd, Elstree, Hertfordshire, UK) using an isocratic method with mobile phase propan-2-ol:acetonitrile:ammonium acetate (60:40:4) at 1 ml/min. Products were profiled by LC/ESI/MS/MS using the specific parent TSA HDAC to daughter transitions of m/z 668, 666, 682, 690, 706, 642,

640, 670,708, 714 and 730 to 369.1 (cholesterol) ([M + NH4]+) ( Supplementary Scheme 1). The collision energy for cholesteryl esters was −33 V and

the declustering potential, −91 V. Murine peritoneal macrophages were isolated from male WT and 12/15-LOX−/− mice and cells from two mice from each group were pooled. 9 × 105 cells were incubated in a 24 well plate with and without chloroquine (100 µM) for 20 hours. Supernatants were removed and cells washed gently with PBS twice to remove serum. Cells were lysed in 50 µl lysis buffer (Stock: 200 µl 2% Ipegal CA-630, 40 µl 0.5 M EDTA, 1 ml 1.5 M NaCl, 100 µl 1 M Tris-CL, 0.5 % (w/v) sodium Bleomycin cell line deoxycholate, 8.46 ml distilled water), 100 µl 10× protease inhibitor cocktail) on ice for 15 minutes, followed by vortexing and further 10 minutes incubation on ice. Lysates were then centrifuged 4-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase for 15 minutes at 13,000 rpm and supernatants removed to new tubes. Lysates were reduced and boiled at 80 °C for 10 minutes. Protein concentration was quantified using a BCA test to ensure equal loading. Protein extracts were separated by SDS-PAGE using a gradient polyacrylamide gel (4–12 %) (Invitrogen), and subsequently transferred to a 0.45 µm nitrocellulose (Amersham™ Hybond ECL, GE Healthcare, Life Sciences). Membrane

was blocked for 1 hour in PBS/0.05 % Tween/5 % milk, and then probed overnight with a polyclonal anti-mouse LC3 (1 µg/ml) (sigma L8918) and subsequently an anti-mouse actin (clone C4, Millipore, Temecula, CA92590, MAB1501R), in PBS/0.05 % Tween/1 % BSA. Blot was then probed with a polyclonal goat anti-rabbit coupled to HRP (Dako (PO448)) and incubated with ECL (Pierce). Blot was exposed for 1 minute onto x-ray film. All proteins were purified from Escherichia coli. However, purified LC3B, hs(Homo sapiens) Atg7, and hsAtg3 are kind gifts from Nobuo N. Noda, Institute of Microbial Chemistry, Tokyo 141-0021, Japan. In vitro lipidation reactions of Atg8 and LC3 were performed using buffer containing 50 mM Tris–HCl pH 8.0, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM MgCl2, and 0.2 mM DTT.

One injection (case 744) involved the retrochiasmatic area and, to a lesser degree, the ventral extent of the anterior hypothalamic nucleus, but it completely avoided the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus. The two injections in the anterior hypothalamic nucleus (cases 770 and 771) involved primarily the central part. Finally, two injections were centered in

the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus, the rostroventral one (case 746) included mainly the anterior, central and ventrolateral parts and the caudodorsal Tanespimycin manufacturer one (case 747), the central and dorsomedial parts. The former injection also encroached peripherally on the retrochiasmatic area, and the latter on the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus. In general, the control experiments fully ZD1839 cell line confirmed the anterograde tracing results of the MeAV case 565. The retrograde labeling in the Me is almost exclusively ipsilateral, except after injections in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus where an expressive contralateral labeling is present in ventral Me parts. A dense cluster of vividly labeled cells outlined the MeAV after injections in the lateral amygdaloid nucleus (Figs. 9A1, 10A), posterior basomedial amygdaloid nucleus (Figs. 9A2, 10B), amygdalostriatal transition area/lateral central nucleus (Figs. 9A3, 10C) and

ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (Figs. 10D, 11A4). A moderately dense retrograde labeling was observed in the MeAV (up to 12 labeled cells per section) Thalidomide after injections in the retrochiasmatic area (Fig. 11A3), anterior hypothalamic

nucleus and posterior part of the medial BST (Figs. 10E, 11A1), and a more modest one, after an injection in the anterior part of the medial BST. The substantial retrograde labeling found in the MeAV after injections in the anterior hypothalamic nucleus contrasts with PHA-L observations indicating that this nucleus contains MeAV fibers en route to more posterior targets, being itself sparingly innervated. Having in mind the possibility of an uptake of FG by fibers-of-passage (e.g., Dado et al., 1990) and of a minimal spillover of FG into adjacent parts of the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus, one should tentatively conclude that if MeAV projections to the anterior hypothalamic nucleus do indeed exist, they are rather modest. Very few retrogradely labeled cells (up to 3 per section) were seen in the MeAV in the three cases with injections centered the medial preoptic nucleus (Figs. 10F, 11A2–D2). For comparative purpose, the retrograde labeling in the other parts of the Me will be briefly described in these FG cases (Fig. 9 and Fig. 11). In Ce/ASt case 740, a rather modest retrograde labeling was observed in the MeAD, whereas the MePV and MePD were devoid of labeling (Fig. 9A3, B3). In all the other FG cases, retrogradely labeled cells were distributed throughout the MeAD and MePV (Fig. 9 and Fig.

3 and 6 However, how SP600125 datasheet these events

are involved in the formation of cystic cavities and resorption of adjacent bone continues to be a matter of numerous researches. In this respect, altered expression of bone metabolism-related factors may favour an increase in osteolytic activity and the consequent cystic expansion into adjacent bone tissue. Odontogenic cysts are one of the most common osseous-destructive lesions affecting the jaws.7 and 8 They are classified traditionally into a developmental group, including dentigerous cysts, and an inflammatory group including radicular and residual cysts.4, 7 and 8 Developmental cysts are of unknown origin, but do not appear to result from an inflammatory process. On other hand, the inflammatory cysts, as their name implies, are associated with inflammation.8 Both radicular and dentigerous cysts can show a range from little to quite extensive primary/secondary inflammation4 and it is possible that the variation seen in the fibrous capsule of these cysts might reflect differences in the osteolytic activity. Moreover, the presence of hemorrhagic areas in the fibrous capsule of dentigerous cyst could also contribute to the

increase of osteolytic activity. Recent studies suggest an important role of receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (RANK), RANK ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) in the pathogenesis of oral lesions characterised

by bone resorption.9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17 Most of the bone diseases are 3-Methyladenine in vitro caused by a disturbance in the number and activity of osteoclastic cells, resulting in improper bone resorption which exceeds the compensatory capacity of osteoblasts.18 and 19 Increased osteoclast activity is seen in many osteopenic disorders such as postmenopausal osteoporosis, Paget’s disease, bone metastases and rheumatoid arthritis.6, 17, 19 and 20 RANK, RANKL and OPG are key regulators in osteoclast biology and bone metabolism.21 and 22 RANKL interacts with its receptor RANK located on osteoclast precursors and dendritic cells, and activates c-Jun, mafosfamide NFkβ pathways that are related to the process of differentiation, proliferation and activation of osteoclasts.18 The effects of RANKL are blocked by soluble decoy receptors such as OPG that competes with RANK for binding to RANKL.18, 19 and 21 In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that RANK/RANKL/OPG are essential for the life of osteoclasts and, as mediators of bone diseases, are important molecular targets for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention.18 and 22 Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the immunohistochemical expression of RANK, RANKL and OPG in radicular (RC) and dentigerous cyst (DC).

, 2003 and Yaraee et al., 2003), which is crucial to the development of the inflammatory and febrile responses and enhances the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines

in response to LPS ( Berman et al., 1996). Moreover, LPS itself can increase the NK1R expression in some of these cells ( Bost, 2004). In view of such considerations, the present study aimed to investigate, using a selective non-peptide NK1R antagonist SR140333B, whether substance P, released in the periphery or the CNS, participates in the febrile response induced by LPS and two endogenous pyrogens: IL-1β, which induces a prostaglandin-dependent fever, and CCL3/MIP-1α, which induces a prostaglandin-independent fever in conscious Veliparib solubility dmso rats. In addition, we assessed the effects of centrally administered substance P on body temperature in this species. Control animals treated only with vehicle or SR140333B showed a small increase in body temperature over baseline values, returning to pre-injection temperature after 1 h and remaining at this level up to 6 h after administration. In sharp contrast, those given LPS (30 μg/kg, i.p.) displayed an increase in body temperature that peaked after around 2.5 h and continued elevated for the remainder of the observation period. Prior injection of the NK1R antagonist SR140333B (0.3 mg/kg, data not shown or 1 mg/kg, i.p.) failed to impede the development of LPS-induced fever

(Fig. 1A and B). A higher dose of SR140333B (3 mg/kg, i.p.) was tested NVP-BEZ235 clinical trial but, in combination with LPS, this dose induced a significant decrease in body temperature between 0 and 1.5 h (around 0.7 °C) after injection, which made the interpretation of the results difficult (data not shown). SR140333B (1 mg/kg, i.p.) alone did not alter body temperature from baseline (Fig. 1C). To verify if this dose of SR140333B blocked the peripheral actions of SP we examined

the effect of this treatment on protein extravasation. Intradermal injection of SP induced a significant increase in Evans blue extravasation when compared Nintedanib (BIBF 1120) to saline in vehicle-treated animals (Fig. 1D). As expected, the treatment of the animals with SR140333B, at the same dose that did not affect the febrile response, significantly reduced the protein extravasation by 81% (Fig. 1D). In the next set of experiments we injected SR140333B or the vehicle into the lateral ventricle of the animals. Control animals treated only with the vehicle or SR140333B showed much smaller changes in body temperature than in the previous set of experiments. The pre-treatment of the animals with SR140333B effectively reduced the febrile response induced by LPS (Fig. 2). Fig. 2A shows the time-course of the reduction in the febrile response induced by the higher dose of SR140333B (3 μg, i.c.v.). This dose of SR140333B reduced the fever index by 85% (Fig. 2B). A lower dose of SR140333B (1 μg, i.c.v.

Betaine has been used as a dietary supplement in animal husbandry for 60 years, because it protects from the osmotic stress, maldigestion, as well as increases the lean muscle

mass in pigs and ruminants. S-methylmethionine, also known as vitamin U and anti-ulcer factor, was first isolated by McRorie et al. in 1953 [81]. In plants vitamin U plays a role as a reserve form of methionine and osmoprotectant. The best dietary sources of SMM are Brassica vegetables (i.e. Western cabbage, China Cabbage, and broccoli), garlic, soy bean, sweet corn, and celery. In animal models SMM has choline- and methionine-sparing activity. BHMT2 is a zinc metalloenzyme that methylates homocysteine using SMM. Unfortunately, selleck chemicals very little data are available from functional genomic studies on BHMT2. Recently, Bhmt2 was identified as a diet-dependent genetic factor protecting against acetaminophen-induced liver toxicity [82]. The BHMT2 rs625879 TT homozygous mothers had a decreased risk of having CL/P offspring compared to women with the GG genotype (ORTTvsGG=0.31; 95%CI: 0.16–0.63, p=0.0009 and pcorr=0.02). In mothers, but not in affected patients, we observed weak influence of the BHMT2 rs526264 on CL/P risk [31, 32]. BHMT2 rs625879 and rs526264 are strongly correlated. The mechanisms by which polymorphisms

of the BHMT1 and BHMT2 genes might influence the susceptibility to CL/P requires further investigation. http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Staurosporine.html The high linkage disequilibrium across the Docetaxel chemical structure chromosomal region containing BHMT1/2 makes it difficult to distinguish a real genetic risk factor. Moreover, it is possible that all associations of the CL/P candidate genes observed in reviewed papers represents indirect associations with other polymorphisms, genes or regulatory elements. Outlets selling supplements for humans offer betaine usually labeled as trimethylglycine or TMG. SMM is marketed as herbal medicine in Asia and Stomacin U® tablets in the United States. The choline and folate metabolic

pathways are interrelated and intersect at the step of methionine formation from homocysteine [83]. We analyzed polymorphisms of PEMT and genes encoding choline kinase (CHK A), choline dehydrogenase (CHDH), and choline-phosphate cytidiltransferase A (PCYT1A). For the investigated 5 polymorphisms of CHKA, PEMT, and CHDH in CL/P-patients there was no evidence for both allelic and genotyping association with the risk of a being a case; however, other variants in these genes should be examined for a possible role in oral clefts [31]. It is noteworthy that embryonic PCYT1A rs7639752 A allele increased the risk of having CL/P-affected offspring nearly twofold in the Polish population (ORAG+A AvsGG=1.89; 95%CI: 1.15–3.11; p=0.01); however, the results were not statistically significant after adjustment for multiple comparisons [31]. The PCYT1A protein is a rate controlling enzyme in the choline pathway [84].

We are grateful to Atlas South Sea Pearl Ltd for providing us with pearl oysters and a seeding technician for this experiment. “
“Phytoplankton accounts for less than 1% of the photosynthetic biomass on Earth, yet is estimated to contribute half of the world’s net primary production (Field et al., 1998). A substantial fraction of the global carbon flux is controlled by the prokaryotic fraction of the plankton (Binaschi et al., 2001), the so-called bacterioplankton, selleck kinase inhibitor which consist of different heterotrophic taxa with varying ecological strategies (Giovannoni, 2005). Studies based on culture-independent 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequence (16S rDNA)

analysis and transcriptome-based approaches provided insights into the dynamics and functional interactions within such communities (Gilbert et al., 2008). However, several questions remain unanswered, e.g. how a multitude of eukaryotic and prokaryotic planktonic species coexist in a seemingly homogenous habitat with limited resources (Glöckner, 2011). In previous studies,

we used a comprehensive multi-‘omic’ approach to investigate the bacterioplankton’s response to a diatom-dominated spring phytoplankton bloom off the coast of the island Helgoland in the year 2009 (Klindworth HSP inhibitor cancer et al., 2014 and Teeling et al., 2012). We observed a tight succession of distinct blooming bacterial clades. Flavobacteria (genera Ulvibacter, Formosa, and Polaribacter) and Gammaproteobacteria (genus Reinekea and SAR92 clade species) acted as major polymer degrader while Alphaproteobacteria (SAR11 clade and Rhodobacteraceae) appeared to hardly benefit from abound algae substrates. The combined analysis of metagenomes, metatranscriptomic and metaproteomes from different time points throughout the succession uncovered differences in the gene repertoires and expression ADP ribosylation factor profiles of distinct clades. The metatranscriptome reported in this study was generated as part of the same sampling campaign but addressing the winter

time before the spring phytoplankton bloom. Prior to appearance of the algae bloom surface water was collected on 11.02.2009 from the long-term ecological research site ‘Kabeltonne’ off the coast of the island Helgoland in the German Bight of the North Sea (54°11.18′N, 7°54.00′E) as described previously (Teeling et al., 2012). RNA extraction was performed without mRNA enrichment and the cleaned total RNA sample was subsequently used for cDNA synthesis as reported by Klindworth et al. (Klindworth et al., 2014). Roche’s 454 pyrosequencing was carried out at LGC Genomics (LGC Genomics GmbH, Berlin, Germany) using the FLX Titanium chemistry (Roche/454 Life Sciences, Branford, CT, USA) according to the manufacturers protocols. The sequencing statistics are summarized in Table 1. Extraction of expressed 16S rDNA fragments from metatranscriptome and their subsequent taxonomic assignments were done with the SILVA pipeline (Quast et al., 2013), which uses the SINA aligner (Pruesse et al., 2012).

For both RT and ER analyses, the SiCE was evident in the number-line compatible condition while it was absent in the number-line incompatible one. This lack Belnacasan clinical trial of SiCE for both analyses bolsters the assumption that when numbers are presented incompatibly, together with

being defined as irrelevant to the task, synesthetes do not perceive them as meaningful symbols that entail semantic information. Notwithstanding, the above suggestions are valid only when numbers are irrelevant to the task. When numbers were relevant (i.e., the numerical comparison), the SiCE was present regardless of number-line compatibility. Moreover, these SiCEs were not very different in size (92 msec for compatible and 84 msec for incompatible ATM/ATR inhibitor cancer in vertical task; 107 msec for compatible and 94 msec for incompatible in the horizontal

task). At first, this finding seemed to deviate from previously reported findings showing that an incompatible presentation of numbers (with respect to the synesthetic number form) affects performance (Gertner et al., 2009, Hubbard et al., 2009, Jarick et al., 2009, Jarick et al., 2011, Piazza et al., 2006 and Sagiv et al., 2006). However, a closer look at the data revealed that number position did influence general RT. RTs for the number-line compatible condition were significantly shorter than RTs for the number-line incompatible condition in both horizontal and vertical presentations. Moreover, the latter condition was also more prone to errors. Thus, when numbers had to be processed in order to execute the task, as was the case in numerical judgments, synesthetes had to adjust their mental representation to fit the actual one (or vice versa). Although this adjustment slowed down their responses, it did not affect the production Methane monooxygenase of the physical SiCE nor its size. The current findings converge with our previous data (Gertner et al., 2009) in which we found an elimination of the DE when number-space synesthetes made comparative judgments for digits that were aligned incompatibly with their synesthetic number forms. However,

in the previous study, processing numbers were part of the task requirements, that is, they had to be intentionally processed, while in the current study the physical comparison entails an unintentional processing of numbers. These two studies demonstrate the rigidity in the synesthetes’ ability to represent numbers according to task demands. This behavioral inflexibility seems to result in a less effective performance in numerical tasks that require intentional and unintentional numerical processing. While focusing on the pattern of the SiCE (i.e., incongruent condition RT minus congruent condition RT) we nearly overlooked an interesting pattern regarding the neutral condition itself. A scrutiny of the neutral condition (i.e.

A colocação de cecostomia percutânea permite a realização de enemas anterógrados por meio de uma sonda e, como tal, evita as complicações associadas ao estoma. Inicialmente descrita como um procedimento colocado com auxílio da fluoroscopia4 and 5, o recurso à endoscopia permite uma visualização direta do cego, evitando que a colocação da sonda seja feita noutros locais que não esse, ao mesmo tempo que o doente não é exposto a radiação prolongada. É tecnicamente

simples e fácil de realizar. Também o tempo de procedimento é curto6, sendo menos moroso que a realização de apendicostomia/cecostomia e que a colocação sob controlo radioscópico. Como desvantagens apresenta-se a presença de uma sonda permanente que atravessa a pele e o tecido subcutâneo terminando RG 7204 no cego e a possibilidade de ocorrência de complicações relacionadas com a sonda (sua remoção acidental, rotura4 e migração). No caso que se apresenta ocorreu a migração da sonda inicial, tendo esta complicação sido facilmente resolvida com colonoscopia e substituição por sonda com

balão. Estão ainda descritas outras possíveis complicações: peritonite, celulite e hemorragia7. No caso particular das crianças com derivações ventriculoperitoneais, a colocação de CEP parece ser uma opção segura, na medida em não tem sido associada a risco maior de infeção do líquido céfalo-raquidiano2 and 4. A CEP é recomendada nos casos de TCL incontinência fecal PS341 associada a espinha bífida, lesão medular, malformação anorretal e alterações neurológicas. Na doença de Hirschsprung

com enterocolite recorrente e pseudo-obstrução cólica pode ser útil para irrigação e descompressão do cólon. A sua aplicabilidade poderá ser alargada também para aos adultos para descompressão em casos de obstrução maligna do cólon esquerdo2. Não terá de ser necessariamente realizado sob anestesia geral, podendo ser um procedimento de ambulatório com sedação e anestesia local, desde que a colonoscopia seja bem tolerada. Longe de ser a forma de abordagem ideal da incontinência fecal, a CEP revela-se como uma boa opção terapêutica. Apesar de ainda não ser frequentemente utilizada e divulgada na literatura e apesar da ausência de estudos comparativos com as opções mais amplamente usadas como a apendicostomia/cecostomia e os enemas retrógrados, alia as vantagens da realização de enemas anterógrados sem a presença de estoma e colocado de uma forma rápida e segura. O doente adquire autonomia e independência na realização dos enemas e alcança o controlo da continência fecal melhorando significativamente a sua qualidade de vida e adaptação social, aspetos fundamentais na vida de um adolescente. Os autores declaram não haver conflito de interesses.

19). Type 2 differs from Type 1 in that aquifers supplying the high elevation springs are perched or impounded within a vadose zone that is several hundreds of metres thick. Under this regime the units beneath the perching aquitard would be unsaturated. An unpublished commercial report (Maxim Engineering, 1995) GSK 3 inhibitor states that a 1967/1968 water test well located in a ghaut on the northern slopes of CH at ∼200 m amsl was drilled to a depth of 75 m amsl and did not encounter saturated material. Up-valley of this drill site

at the elevations of 315 and 345 m amsl the ghaut is fed by Blackwood Allan and Mongo Springs. In the Type 2 model the spring aquifers are hydraulically connected to the deeper hydrological system and to low elevation coastal aquifers. Under these conditions spring behaviour, temperature and composition is hydraulically coupled with groundwater

conditions and pressure at depth, and therefore to volcanic perturbation. By defining hydraulic connectivity between low and high elevation aquifers, this model can better explain the anomalously warm springs at high elevation on the south side of CH. Certain observations from Montserrat are consistent with either of the major volcanic island conceptual hydrology models. Without deep boreholes within the central portions of Montserrat’s volcanic complexes it is difficult to definitively propose which model best represents the hydrology of this volcanic arc island. Both should be maintained as working hypotheses, with a view to gathering data to better constrain the system. High yielding springs on the flanks of the extinct INK 128 mw Centre Hills volcanic complex and low lying aquifers in more distal locations provide an essential water

resource to the island’s population, as it recovers from over 15 years of volcanic activity. Recharge models predict annual recharge of 10–20% of annual rainfall with a strong seasonality; models predict that over 70% of the islands recharge occurs between July and December. Land use is a critical control on recharge; during extended periods of quiescence changes ADAMTS5 in vegetation type, including colonisation and eventual afforestation of young deposits in the south, and deforestation for agriculture around Centre Hills, are expected to modify the current recharge conditions. Recharge will also be affected by any fluctuations in rainfall patterns associated with climate change; this will, no doubt, have implications for spring yield. The development of springs at elevations of 200–400 m amsl, on an island with only ephemeral rivers and no other surface water, requires the presence of low permeability units. Assuming a recharge rate of 0.27 m/yr the surface recharge area required to supply the highest yielding spring on Montserrat is over 40 times the topographically defined catchment.