Like human PKR, zebrafish PKR was inhibited by E3 and vIF2α. Moreover, as was seen for

human PKR, zebrafish PKR from cells expressing the inhibitors migrated faster on SDS-PAGE, indicative of blocked secondary phosphorylation events. An interesting difference between human and zebrafish PKR is that zebrafish PKR was resistant to K3 inhibition in both the growth and eIF2α phosphorylation assays. In accord with our previous studies on PKR inhibition by K3 [49], we propose that K3L might have evolved to suppress PKR of the natural poxvirus hosts and that zebrafish PKR is too different to be targeted with high efficiency. It is not clear why vIF2α, which is found in amphibian and fish viruses, can inhibit both human and zebrafish PKR, Epoxomicin mw but it is possible that vIF2α targets more conserved residues in the PKR kinase domain than does K3. Previously we showed that K3 exhibits species specificity for inhibition of PKR. Whereas human PKR was only moderately inhibited by VACV K3, mouse PKR was much more sensitive [49]. This difference in sensitivity was attributed to residues Caspase Inhibitor VI datasheet that were subject to positive selection during evolution. Interestingly,

positive selection was also observed in the kinase domains of fish and amphibian PKR and fish PKZ [49]. It will be interesting to determine whether vIF2α also shows altered specificity for PKR or the related PKZ of the species

that are naturally infected with vIF2α-containing ranaviruses. Conclusions Overall, it appears that vIF2α and K3 inhibit PKR in a similar fashion, by acting as pseudosubstrates and inhibiting PKR following kinase activation. As vIF2α does not act as an eIF2α substitute, but instead inhibits PKR function, the renaming of vIF2α might be considered. We suggest changing Exoribonuclease the name from vIF2α to RIPR, the acronym for Ranavirus Inhibitor of Protein kinase R. Methods Yeast strains and plasmids Human (hs) and zebrafish (dr) PKR cDNAs containing both N-terminal His6- and Flag tags were first cloned into the yeast expression vector pYX113 (R&D systems) under the control of a GAL-CYC1 hybrid promoter [27]. Next, the two DNA fragments containing the GAL-CYC1 promoter and a PKR cDNA were subcloned into the LEU2 integrating vector pRS305, which was then directed to integrate into the leu2 locus of the strain H2557 (MATα ura3-52 leu2-3 leu2-112 trp1Δ63 gcn2Δ) generating the strains J983 (MATα ura3-52 leu2-3 leu2-112 trp1Δ63 gcn2Δ ) and J944 (MATα ura3-52 leu2-3 leu2-112 trp1Δ63 gcn2Δ ). Construction of the control strain J673 (MATα ura3-52 leu2-3 leu2-112 trp1Δ63 gcn2Δ ) was described previously [51]. The temperature-sensitive eIF2α strain TD304-10B (MATα Selleck Vemurafenib his4-303 ura3-52 leu2-3 leu2-112 sui2-1) is a derivative of the previously described sui2-1 strain 117-8AR20 [44].