DNA from this biofilm was extracted for whole-genome shotgun sequencing. The majority of reads did PLK inhibition selleck not map to any known bacterial taxa. The most abundant taxon identified was P. aeruginosa (3%). Subsequent alignment to the P. aeruginosa Clade E reference covered 94% of the 6.3 million base reference genome at a median coverage of 5×, confirming that reads were correctly classified to this species and not other environmental Pseudomonas species. Alignment to the P. aeruginosa Clade E reference genome followed by phylogenetic placement of reads demonstrated that it fell into the same clade

as previously recovered isolates from the shower or tap in room 9 (indicated on figure 3, and in online supplementary appendix 6). Discussion The hospital environment has been intimately linked with P. aeruginosa infection for over 50 years yet hospital acquisitions, clusters and outbreaks remain a common occurrence and understanding precise routes of transmission can be difficult.47 48 Our results demonstrate that, even in a new hospital, P. aeruginosa can become rapidly endemic in hospital plumbing. Furthermore, by linking P. aeruginosa genotypes recovered from patients to specific individual water outlets, we offer compelling evidence of unidirectional transmission from water to patients. Further, by sequencing

of a biofilm identified in a TMV from a hospital water system, we can identify the likely common source of genotypes found in water and in the hospital environment. Our results suggest that use of

WGS can reduce ambiguity about potential transmission events in hospitals and consequently inform infection prevention efforts about the direction and sequence of transmission. Typing schemes such as MLST and PFGE are much lower resolution methods and would not be able to provide sufficient information to permit such inferences to be made. It is notable that the burns unit was colonised by a single clone, meaning that it was very unlikely that water outlets at each bed space were colonised as a result of transmissions from the patient or environment. For this to happen would require multiple transmission events from separate patients with the same clone, for which there is no evidence. Instead we speculate that this clone was introduced to the hospital associated with its commissioning. Brefeldin_A One hypothesis is that particular plumbing fittings, that is, the TMV may have been colonised simultaneously by a clone circulating in water. Clade E (ST395) has been frequently reported associated with water, so this remains a possibility. 49 50 However, it is possible that plumbing fittings are installed ‘pre-seeded’ with P. aeruginosa as has already been proposed by Kelsey.3 5 47 Investigation of an outbreak in Wales implicated new plumbing parts as a potential source of P. aeruginosa.