70 Neuropathological findings after TBI share similarities with findings in AD, and TBI may lead to a pathophysiological cascade including axonal damage, increase of Aβ42 production, and decrease of long-term potentiation.70 In mild TBI, a pattern of change in white matter integrity similar to that found in AD was recently found.71 Biomarker studies revealed that AD CSF biomarkers may also be altered in TBI, eg, increase Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of CSF tau and Aβ peptides early after severe TBI, while their diagnostic and prognostic value is still uncertain.72 selleck kinase inhibitor cardiac arrest may

lead to gray matter reductions in the cingulate cortex, precuneus, insular cortex, posterior hippocampus, and dorsomedial thalamus,

which account for a broad range of neuropsychological impairment in these patients, notably amnestic syndromes.73 Cerebral accumulation of Aβ42 was seen in short-term survivors of cardiac arrest74 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical as well as animal models,75 leading to the conclusion that brain hypoxemia after cardiac arrest may foster cerebral Aβ42 accumulation and AD pathology.75 However, it is unclear, if this finding further adds to the cognitive impairment seen in patients after cardiac arrest and cerebral hypoxemia. Alcohol-related cognitive impairment may resemble AD and hippocampal Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical atrophy may be present. CSF biomarkers Aβ42 and tau may be helpful in the distinction of alcohol-related memory decline and AD in unclear cases.76 There is a broad range

of medication that may cause or increase memory impairment, including benzodiazepines, psychotropics, opioids, antiepileptics, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical glucocorticoids, and anticholinergics. A recent study using data from the French pharmacovigilance Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical database found a significant relationship between “memory loss” and benzodiazepines, benzodiazepine-like hypnotics, some antidepressants, analgesics, anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, and other drugs, pointing to the importance of a detailed drug history in patients who complain aminophylline of memory deficits.77 Conclusion With the use of new imaging techniques and biomarkers of dementing diseases, knowledge is further growing on the pathophysiology of AD and non-AD memory impairment. Biomarkers that are recommended in current diagnostic guidelines will not only lead to a higher diagnostic accuracy, but also reveal overlapping pathologies between different neurodegenerative diseases, helping us to develop new concepts on AD and non-AD memory impairment. Although it is evident that mixed pathological entities of neurodegenerative and mental diseases are common, it is important to utilize existing diagnostic possibilities to aim to correctly identify the leading underlying cause of memory impairment and to take suitable therapeutic measures.