, 2008) and in vitro and in vivo neurotoxicity of Bothrops venoms and their PLA2 ( Gallacci and Cavalcante, 2010). Finally, there is the possibility of species differences (bird/rodent vs. human) in the neuromuscular responses to B. b. smargadina venom. Given the arboreal nature of B. b. smargadina and the potency of its venom in avian preparations, this venom may be particularly adapted http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Everolimus(RAD001).html for dealing with avian prey. The authors thank Dr. Ronaldo Navarro Oviedo (Laboratory of Biological Chemistry,

Academic and Biological School of the National University of San Agustín, Arequipa, Peru) for providing the venom and Gildo B. Leite for technical assistance. This work was supported by Conselho Nacional de Wnt inhibitor Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq, Brazil) and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP, Brazil). L.R.S. and S.H. are supported by research fellowships from CNPq. “
“The construction of the Itaipu dam complex in the basin of the Alto Paraná river on the border between Brazil and Paraguai submerged the

Seven Falls of Guaira, which were a natural barrier that impeded the dispersion of several species of fishes, including stingrays, to the upper end of the river (Garrone Neto et al., 2007). As a result, Potamotrygon stingrays, whose habitat was originally the basin of the Alto Paraná river, migrated upstream and colonized different regions of its upper reaches. Consequently, the region of Três Lagoas in the Brazilian State of Mato Grosso do Sul, that was once devoid of stingrays, is now overpopulated by Potamotrygon spp. (Potamotrygon falkneri, Potamotrygon motoro and Potamotrygon schuhmacheri) which cause a considerable number of accidents in the riverside population

( Garrone Neto et al., 2007 and Garrone Neto and Haddad, 2009). The local injury caused by these stingrays is due to mechanical penetration of the sting into the tissue and subsequent release of venom leading to the development of local edema, necrosis, intense local pain and cases of secondary infection (Meyer, 1997, Haddad, 2000, Pardal, 2003, Haddad et al., 2004, C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR-7) Barbaro et al., 2007, Garrone Neto and Haddad, 2009 and Dehghani et al., 2010). It is postulated that the local inflammatory reaction and necrosis in freshwater stingray accidents is due to the release into the wound of several proteins with enzymatic activity produced by the protein secretory cells that covers the sting (Barbaro et al., 2007, Pedroso et al., 2007, Magalhães et al., 2008 and Antoniazzi et al., 2011). The protein secretory cells are overlaid by a fin layer of mucus which also covers the entire surface of the stingray and separates the cutaneous tissue from direct contact with the environmental water (Pedroso et al., 2007).